Eurasia Exploration Society, Switzerland International Institute for Central Asian Studies Archaeological Expertise LLP, Kazakhstan

FIELD REPORT ON THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS AT USHARAL-ILIBALYK, KAZAKHSTAN IN 2020

Gravestone found at Usharal-Ilibalyk in 2020 at cemetery with Syriac inscription

Almaty 2020

The object of archaeological research for this excavation in 2020 was the cemetery of the Ilibalyk settlement, located in the Panfilov district of the Almaty oblast on the northern outskirts of the village of Usharal, Republic of Kazakhstan.

Purpose of the work:

Research was conducted on the site of the western rabad (suburban district) in order to obtain additional data on the cemetery and to identify new cultural material related to the Christian community of the medieval city of Ilibalyk.

Goals:

1. To determine the limits of the cemetery to the south and east of the identified boundaries as revealed during the 2019 excavation.

   
   

2. To identify potential architectural features in Field IV (the western part of the rabad

   (suburban district)) related to the cemetery.

   
   

3. To identify the revealed details of the archaeological excavation and study the stratigraphy.

   
   

4. To conduct aerial photography, a tacheometric survey, and photogrammetry.

   
   

5. To conduct soil samples for natural science analysis and archaeological flotation.

   
   

6. To identify all the revealed details of the archaeological excavation by means of aerial photography, microtopography, tacheometric survey, and photographic recording.

   
   

7. To provide laboratory processing of the cultural materials and a graphic presentation of the results.

As a result, three excavation units were delineated: Units 6, 7 (in Area B), and 12 (in Area C).

Units 6 and 7 (originally designated as test pits) were located 80 meters east of the previously identified necropolis. The excavation area was 60 m². Evidence of habitation were revealed in these units, represented by ash pits; middens; a large amount of ceramic material; as well as animal bones. Interestingly, along with evidence of occupation in this territory, elements related to the necropolis were also revealed which included one burial and two kayraks (gravestones). One contained a written inscription. While clarity on dating is still problematic it does appear possible that habitation and the cemetery are chronologically related based on ceramic evidence.

The remains of the discovered burial belong to an adult and the corpse’s position coincides with those previously studied with the head to the west, legs to the east, and extended on the back. The overall preservation of the bones was poor with the skull and feet missing, the hands appeared disturbed and were located under the pelvic bone. Apparently, the burial was damaged during agricultural plowing of the site during the Soviet era. A pottery sherd was found near the right elbow and an unidentified small piece of metal was found around the lower appendages.

Excavations also revealed a rectangular building with dimensions of 21 x 8.7 meters, with a west-to-east orientation.

The building consisted of three rooms:

Room 1 was located in the western part of the building and occupied most of it. The dimensions of the room were 11.6 x 6 meters. Inside the building, from the northern and southern sides running along the walls, were ledges or platforms made of adobe bricks. The ledges measured 60 cm wide and 40 cm high. Five flat stones were found on these ledges, 3 on the northern ledge and 2 on the southern ledge. The stones were almost arranged parallel, but not exactly symmetrical from each other, which may have served as platforms for wooden columns, although this remains uncertain.

In the southeastern and northeastern parts of Room 1, the walls had a 4 x 0.5 meter-long outward indentation. Perhaps this location was a niche in the wall. A thick layer of clay plaster was found on the inner side of the northern niche indicating that the area was visible to the original occupants.

In the center of the southern wall of Room 1, a 2.5-meter gap was revealed. This gap may indicate an entrance to the premises.

A large amount of charcoal was found on the floor of this room as well as within the soil fill. In the center of the room on the floor, there were three spots of calcined clay, which indicated the presence of burning.

The floor level of the room was sunken by 40 cm relative to the other occupational surface.

Room 2 was located to the west of Room 1. This room appeared to be a raised platform located 60 cm above the floor of Room 1. Rooms 1 and 2 were separated by a partition made of mud blocks measuring 2.1 x 0.3 meters and located exactly in the middle of the western edge of Room 2. The room itself measured of 5.9 x 1.6 m. The northern wall of the room has either not survived or perhaps this area was an entrance. The floor level in Room 2 corresponded to that of the level of the medieval occupational surface.

Room 3 contained the remainder of the eastern part of the building. The northern wall survived only in the northwestern part as seen in the traces of plaster. The western and eastern walls of this room were different from the rest of the walls of the building as they are made of pakhsa (tamped earth) fill, while the other walls were constructed from adobe blocks. A tandoor (furnace) was located at the edge of the western wall of room 3. The dimensions of the room were 4.5 x 7.4 meters and extended in a north-south direction.

To the north of Room 1, outside the building, is an adjoining area made of tamped, gray soil interspersed with charcoal. It was not possible to determine the full configuration of this feature, but presumably it represented two rectangular sections connected by a corridor. On the perimeter of this feature were traces of plaster and adobe blocks were found in certain sections. In the southeastern corner of this section, 4 fired, square-shaped bricks were found. They were possibly the remains of an entrance to room 2.

To the south of room 1, opposite the presumed entrance, the remnants of mudbricks were found which formed a meter-wide platform that extended in a north-south direction. Currently, it is assumed that this platform could be a pedestrian pavement leading to the entrance.

Cultural material within Unit 12 included a large amount of common ware pottery consistent with a 12th through 14th century chronology. Animal bones also indicate that food consumption occurred on the premises. However, most significantly, high status glaze ware and celadon finds, including ceramic lamps with thumb rests with floral designs of a cruciform shape as well as a possible open air metal lamp or censer, indicate the space possessed a possible ecclesiastical function.

Based on the above, we can conclude that in 2020 at the excavation site of Unit 12, a building with a ritualistic function has been discovered which is geographically associated with the necropolis. Based on similar buildings found at medieval Christian necropolises, the current interpretation is that this structure was a small Christian church or funerary chapel. Evidence in the soil of Unit 12 also suggests that the structure burned and was never rebuilt. Radiocarbon analysis of a piece of charred wood from within Room 1 of the structure was submitted to the University of Arizona’s Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Lab (USA) and results are pending as of March 31, 2021. Once those results are obtained and addendum will be included in the report.

Excavations of Units 6 and 7 (originally designated as test pits) identified a burial which indicates the furthermost eastern extent of the cemetery, so far established. Whether other burials lie further east is still an open question, but the current eastern limit, due to the discovery of this grave, extends the cemetery by an additional 80 meters. The presence of two kayraks (gravestones) along with a burial utilizing traditional Christian rites, which are homogeneous throughout the cemetery, clearly indicate that there was also a cemetery on the section designated as Area B which lies due east of Areas C and D. Currently, it is impossible to say whether the cemetery occupied the entire territory between Area C and Unit 6 where the burial was revealed or if gaps exist between what we have discovered in Area C and Area B. This will have to be explored hopefully at a later date. The cultural material from the ceramic collection discovered provide a date range from the 13th -14th centuries, which is consistent with the radiocarbon samples taken in 2016 and 2019 from two different locations in and around the cemetery and can be compared with the most recently submitted sample once those results are available.

Introduction

The focus of archaeological research for the 2020 Ilibalyk expedition was the Christian cemetery of the Ilibalyk settlement, located in the Panfilov district of the Almaty oblast on the northern outskirts of the village of Usharal, in the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Purpose of the work:

Research was conducted on the site of the western rabad (suburban district) in order to obtain additional data on the cemetery and to identify new cultural material related to the Christian community of the medieval city of Ilibalyk.

Goals:

1. To determine the limits of the cemetery to the south and east of the identified boundaries as revealed during the 2019 excavation.

   
   

2. To identify potential architectural features in Field IV (the western part of the rabad

   (suburban district)) related to the cemetery.

   
   

3. To identify the revealed details of the archaeological excavation and study the stratigraphy.

   
   

4. To conduct aerial photography, a tacheometric survey, and photogrammetry.

   
   

5. To conduct soil samples for natural science analysis and archaeological flotation.

   
   

6. To identify all the revealed details of the archaeological excavation by means of aerial photography, microtopography, tacheometric survey, and photographic recording.

   
   

7. To provide laboratory processing of the cultural materials and a graphic presentation of the results.

   
   

   Based on these goals and objectives, an expedition was organized which included several specific groups and specialists who were responsible for carrying out the planned excavation which included the following:

   
   

   • A team of archaeologists. The task of this group was to carry out a series of investigations which involved the clearing and discovery of building structures aimed at providing detailed analysis of the cultural layers and cultural material including the discovery and analysis of materials from the ceramic and osteological collections; materials from metallurgy; and other artifacts.

     
     

     Also, this group collected samples for carpology, palynology, C-14 and flotation using generally accepted guidelines.

   • A recordation team. This team carried out the documentation of the entire process of archaeological investigations with the analysis of the results of the data obtained through the study of individual components of the Ilibalyk settlement and using advanced geodetic equipment. The resulting work of this group involved the construction of 3D models of the excavation sites; the creation of ortho-photomaps and stratigraphic profiles; detailed excavation plans; microtopography; and the development of plans which locate topographically the discovered materials.

     
     

     Documentation was carried out using a Leica TCR-407 total station with subsequent data processed in the AutoCAD and ArcGIS environment in parallel with photographic recordation of building structures and photogrammetry utilizing a Phantom-4 unmanned aerial vehicle.

     
     

     In the process of conducting preliminary aerial photography, the following tasks were performed:

     
     

   • Preparation of the site by clearing the areas of grass and underbrush which creates difficulties in scanning. In addition, the site was cleared of modern household waste (glass, metal, etc.)

   • A breakdown of the entire excavation area into sections/units was made. The findings are reflected in the appendix of this report.

   • A team of ceramic technologists was formed for the task of processing the cultural material to study the production technology and provide a description of the ceramic collection and other discovered materials; draw the ceramics and other finds and record them in a spreadsheet of arranged tables. This team also reconstructed ceramic vessels and collected statistical data.

   • A team for logistical processing. The task of this group was to process the discovered cultural materials of the ceramic and osteological collections, as well as metal products and other artifacts by means of washing and cleaning ceramic and osteological materials in compliance with the conditions and the storage location. Metallic materials were processed in accordance with methodological recommendations and interpreted by specialists. All materials were carefully processed, labeled, and described with an individual serial number for each piece of material. The obtained data is displayed in the appendices of this report.

     
     

     The main priority involved the implementation of the planned activities for the analysis and documentation of materials and elements of the building structures of the area of occupation discovered during the archaeological excavation.

     
     

     The cultural material found as a result of the abovementioned investigations were assigned a special serial number and special finds were measured using the theodolite- tacheometer and coordinates were obtained in the UTM system. These materials are displayed on the excavation top plan. All the material discovered as a result of the excavation have been carefully processed and cleaned in controlled conditions.

     
     

     On the basis of the description and photographic record of the cultural materials from the excavation, a collection inventory was created, a general record was made, and statistical data of the revealed materials were established. Then, these materials were documented, packaged, and prepared for transfer in accordance with documentary regulations.

     
     

     Once the excavation identified and cleared the building structures, descriptions were made of the identified components followed by design and drawing documentation.

     This particular work was carried out by documentary specialists who know the latest methods and modern technologies in the field of geodesy and planography. In the course of this work, drawings of the identified elements, a general view of the excavation, and stratigraphic profiles were created.

     
     

     The methodological basis of the excavation was conducted with the following components:

     
     

   • Excavations across wide areas.

   • Layer-by-layer and elevation recordation of the work performed.

   • Development of a detailed plan of the identified structures using electronic tacheometers.

   • A methodical, comparative analysis for the study of finds.

   • A recordation method for establishing the stratigraphic and planographic situation.

   • A method of including archeological features into a geographic information system (GIS) for their precise positioning in space relative to each other and the landscape background.

The collection of documentation is based on a system developed by specialists from the University of Aachen under the guidance of Professor Michael Jansen and Dr. Thomas Urban. This system is based on the completion of specially designed forms, whereby a certain level of data collection is achieved. While the presence of a field diary does not serve as the basis for reaching the desired level, the researcher is presented with a series of so-called forms.

The "Main form," providing a general description of a site or a separate excavation, as well as a description of plans, goals, objectives and ways to achieve them.

An "Action sheet" is a type of field diary, in which the researcher enters daily information about the actions performed, as well as about the objects found, sizes, etc.

“A Locus Sheet” is a detailed account of each feature detected, the layer removed, or a specific feature noticed, etc., and is called a "locus" followed by being assigned a locus number.

"Find Tag or Label" is a form that is set up specifically for certain finds that are clearly different from the bulk of the excavated material.

A "Photograph Log" is a type of database with a catalog of photographs taken during the excavation, indicating the location, the direction of the shot, followed by a brief description, etc.

When human remains are discovered, an “Osteological Worksheet” is completed that aids the archaeologist in the process of examining the features of the burial and skeletal remains to provide rudimentary and preliminary identification of sex and age for adult remains. Our team does not have an osteoarcheologist or forensic scientist, therefore, any conclusions concerning human remains need to be considered as preliminary and in need of further examination by a specialist.

The team also included a brigade of local workers from both the village of Usharal itself as well as from other locations within Kazakhstan who assisted with excavation, photography, soil shifting, and recordation. Excavation involved the use of shovels, small hand tools, trowels, and dental tools. During the conservation and backfill stage at the conclusion of this year’s dig, mechanized equipment was utilized for that purpose.

A metal detectorist was also used in controlled conditions to assist excavators with metal finds. Findspots were carefully recorded using the total station.

We would also like to acknowledge our gratitude to the people of Usharal village in the Panfilov district in the Republic of Kazakhstan, both in their assistance as workers on the site who cooperated with our adjusted Covid-19 protocols as well as other local Kazakhstani workers and volunteers who provide their skills and talents toward this project.

General Section

1. Description of the Excavation

   1. Unit 12 (Area C) General Description

Unit 12 was a continuation southward of the 2019 excavation (Area C).

Residential buildings, a small scattering of local businesses, and a small guest house can be found to the north, west, and southwest of the excavation site approximately half a kilometer away. Prior to all excavations which began in 2016, this site has served as a grazing area for cattle and sheep, and as a result the area is covered with cow and sheep excrement. Traces of modern agriculture are also visible on the surface of the excavation site since the area was extensively plowed during the Soviet period beginning in the 1930s.

Unit 12 was delineated as rectangular in shape with the sides oriented along the north- south and west-east axis. The unit measured 22.5 m along the line from north to south and a width of 32 m along the west-east line. This made the total area approximately 660 m2. (See Appendix B, pgs 105-106-figs. 1-8).

Unit 12 is located within the vicinity of previously cultivated orchards on a small plane where dense, tall herbaceous vegetation of wormwood-type trees (Artemizia) grow together with low-growing shrubs. On the northern and southern sides of the excavation, wild fruit trees of the Elaeagnus commutate variety (silver oak) grow, as well as wild apricot trees belonging to the common apricot (Prunus armeniaca Lin., Armeniaca vulgaris Lam).

The site on which Unit 12 is located appears relatively flat and the topsoil layer consists of loamy soil types with a greater extent being a yellow loam of a dense structure. On the exposed areas of the surface, dusty loess deposits of a gray tint are visible.

A large portion of Unit 12 was previously exposed in 2017 which removed the topsoil layer. One trench (5 x 5 m) was dug at that time (designated as Unit 2 at that time, but a subsequent unit in 2018 in Area C also received this designation) in this section which revealed a large stone (40х31х9) with hundreds of pick marks but with no discernable inscription or design as well as a pottery fragments and animal bone. (See 2017 dig report, pgs 107-116, 119- 120, 158). The unit revealed no graves or other features at that time. This is probably due to the fact that it is very close to the structure discovered that is explained below.

Excavations on this site revealed a rectangular building 21 x 8.7 meters in dimension with an east-to-west orientation.

The building consisted of three rooms and a possible courtyard:

Room 1 was located in the western part of the building and occupied a majority of the structure. The dimensions of this room were 11.6 x 6 meters. Inside the room, from the northern and southern sides, along the walls, ledges made of adobe bricks were identified. The ledges were 60 cm wide and 40 cm high. Five flat, boulder-sized stones were found on these ledges with 3 on the northern ledge and 2 on the southern ledge. The stones were arranged parallel as though meant to face each other. It should be noted, however, that the stones were not perfectly opposite from one another. This may have been due to seismic activity, agricultural activity, shifting of the soil, or poor architecture. While further investigation will be necessary, it is probable that these stones served as bases for wooden pillars for the structure, though the building’s size probably did not require these pillars for support but may have supported features for an aesthetic purpose.

In the southeastern and northeastern part of the room, the walls had a 50 cm outward indentation. The length of the indentation was 4 meters, indicating a possible niche. A thick layer of clay plaster discovered on the inner side of the northern niche indicates that that the wall was visible to the original occupants.

In the center of the room’s southern wall, a gap of 2.5 meters was revealed. This gap may indicate the main entrance to the premises, particularly of Room 1.

A large amount of charcoal was found on the floor of the room, as well as within the soil fill. In center of the room on the floor, three spots of calcined clay were revealed which verifies the presence of burning.

It is apparent that this room contains a sunken floor 40 cm below the determined occupational surface.

Room 2 was located to the west of Room 1. This room was raised approximately 60 cm above the floor of Room 1. Rooms 1 and 2 were separated by a partition made of adobe blocks measuring 2.1 x 0.3 meters and located exactly in the center of the western edge of Room 2. The room itself measured 5.9 x 1.6 m. The northern wall of the room had not survived, but perhaps this wall contained an entrance. The floor level in Room 2 appears to correspond to the level of the ancient, occupational surface and measured at a level of 597.685 m. asl.

Room 3 was located in the eastern part of the building. The northern wall had survived only in the northwestern section as identified by traces of plaster. The western and eastern walls of the room differed from the rest of the walls of the building in that they were made of pakhsa (tamped earth) fill, while the rest of the walls were made of adobe blocks. A tandoor (furnace) was located at the edge of the western wall of Room 3. The room’s dimensions were 4.5 x 7.4 meters and extended in a north-south direction.

To the north of Room 1, outside the building, an adjoining area made of tamped, gray soil interspersed with charcoal was exposed. It was not possible to determine the full configuration of this feature, but presumably it represented two rectangular sections connected by a corridor. On the perimeter of this feature, traces of plaster and a course of adobe blocks were found in certain sections. In the southeastern part of this feature, in the corner, 4 square- shaped, fired bricks were revealed and were possibly the remains of the entrance to Room 2.

To the south of Room 1, opposite the supposed entrance, the remains of adobe brickwork were found which formed a one-meter-wide platform which extended in a north-south direction. It is assumed that this feature could be a pedestrian pavement leading to a southern entrance for Room 1.

The excavations revealed some interesting artifacts:

1. In Room 1, in the upper layer, a granite kayrak (gravestone) was found which measured 20 x 11.4 x 7 cm. It is uncertain as to whether this stone is in situ due to the fact that the topsoil layer had been previously disturbed and backfilled by mechanical means in 2017. (L-213, Serial no. Ib_20_С_IV_213, see pgs. 50,107,132-Fig. 165).

   
   

2. In the northern part of the unit, in the area of the possible courtyard (L-185), a second kayrak (gravestone, L-234) was discovered which measured 23 x18.5 x 7 cm. Currently, no grave is in association with this stone which may be due to the fact that a cluster of small fruit trees is obstructing a possible grave. During the 2019 excavations, a small metal cross was discovered less than 1 meter from this gravestone.

   
   

3. A metal artifact was found in the eastern section of the unit, located outside the eastern outer wall of the structure by less than 2 meters. This highly fragmented and corroded artifact has a concave, saucer-shape and along the edges on both sides there is a through hole for a copper chain. It was possibly intended to be a lamp or a censer (Serial no. Ib_20_С_IV_212_I005. See pgs. 55-56;130-fig. 152).

   
   

4. In Rooms 1 and 2, fragments of oil lamps; vessel potsherds with a brilliant, blue glaze; and the capital of a candlestick were found which indicate high-status finds (Serial no. Ib_20_C_IV_212_I001, I009, I015; Ib_20_C_IV_230_I001. See pgs 57-60; 129-fig. 150; 131- fig. 160; 132-fig. 163)

   
   

5. In Room 1, at floor level, a painted glass vessel fragment was found (Serial no. Ib_20_C_IV 212_I10. See pgs.71-72; 130-fig. 156). This comes from a high-status vessel, likely an import, which could be associated with an ecclesiastical function given the context.

1.2 Unit 12 Loci Descriptions

Locus 185. A hardened, ash-colored area. This dense area with gray-colored soil measured 3 x 8.35 m, encompassing an area of 25.05 m2 and was located to the north of the structure found in U-12, partially within the boundaries of the 2019 excavation site between Units 9C and 9B. The UTM coordinates measured at x: 410199.401; y: 4887011.713; and 597.425 m asl.; x: 410203.536; y: 4887011.803; and 597.381 m asl.; x: 410195.933; y:

4887011.361; and 597.355 m asl.

Originally, it was thought this feature was a grave that was obscured in the soil as it lay in the baulk of the southern-most boundary of Area C during the previous season. It was then designated Locus 185. Excavators determined to examine this locus in order to show a potential relationship with the structure in U-12. This locus as originally revealed lay within U-9C on the border with U-3 and within the northern baulk of U-12. It is also the location where a bronze metal cross was found that was thought to possibly be attached to a wooden coffin. Thus, the rationale was that it could have been a high-status grave, in addition it was between 5-6 meter from the northern wall which was detected from the structure previously revealed in U-12.

The excavation was complicated in that only part of what was considered to be the grave pit was revealed as is lay under a tree. Care was taken to prevent damaging the tree. The section of the baulk of U-12 in the border with U-9C was gradually leveled. One hundred percent of the soil was sifted. Pottery fragments and animal bone were revealed, mostly in the topsoil layer. The feature contained a dense, light gray loam which was laid out in a west-to-east direction with a slight depression.

The excavation fill, which included topsoil material, continued to reveal a significant amount of pottery including a large fragment of blue glazed pottery. Burning and charcoal flecks continued to be found just below the topsoil layer. Despite attempts, a southern boundary for a grave could not be found. As soil was lowered in this southern section, some animal bone fragments were found and carefully examined. However, as the area was cleared with a mechanical blower, the gray soils which were thought to define a grave pit actually extended much further west than anticipated. Thus, it no longer appeared to be a grave, eventually expanding to the above-mentioned area. Further soil that made up the “island” of the trees was removed in the western section. While clearing this section a kayrak (gravestone) was found and a new locus was opened, L-234 (see locus description below).

On the south side, the layout was cut by a feature of mud bricks and loam (designated Locus 258), as well as by a square feature of gray mud blocks (designated Locus 259) of an unknown, functional purpose. As further revealed to the west, the feature had a gradual rise. The western edge of the feature curved to the south. A thick, loamy gray coating 6-7 cm thick could be detected throughout this feature. While clearing the paved loamy area, charcoal and charred wood of various diameters and sizes were detected throughout the feature. While an interpretation is tentative, this locus may have incorporated a courtyard but may have also been enclosed due to evidence of plaster on the northwest side and later subject to intense burning, as evidenced by the charcoal throughout the feature. Further investigation is needed.

Locus 212. Opening layer designation of Unit 12. This locus lay south of Unit 3 (excavations in 2019) of Area C in a north-south, east-west direction. The opening excavation area dimensions: north to south 30 m; east to west 21.52 m. The total area of the excavation was 645.6 m2.

The rationale for choosing this area was due to previous kayrak finds from 2016 and also because it was in the area in which a metal cross was found in the southern baulk of what at the time with the furthest limit of our excavations at lower depths as defined in 2019 (see above L-185).

While a test trench (U-10) dug in 2019 extended from the southwest corner of Area C by approximately 45 m, human remains were located no further than 20 meters south, possibly indicating that the southern extent of the cemetery does not exceed beyond that point, which would be consistent with the gravestone (kayrak) finds to date which have not been discovered beyond that southern point. Excavators considered that further excavations in this newly designated locus, could potentially reveal elite, or high-status, graves as well as conclusively determine the southern boundary of the Christian cemetery.

The excavation level was an uneven surface and from east to west toward the center there was a noticeable depression, which then developed into a small, uneven rise to the west. The area was densely overgrown with small bushes and grass. Trees (elm) grew on the northern

and western sides varying from 3 to 5 m in height. The abovementioned vegetation had a dense root system of various depths throughout the layer. The soil was a yellow loam with loess content. The topsoil had been previously disturbed by mechanical means due to a large portion of this section that was cleared in 2017.

Excavations began from the north side proceeding to the south. Clearing was carried out to the depth of a shovel blade of approximately 30 cmbs. The density of the soil differed considerably in the northern and northwestern sections of the locus in contrast to the eastern corner of the excavation due, in part, to the root system of trees and grass. Fragments of ceramics and pebbles of various sizes were detected across the surface.

The soil in this northern section of the locus was gray and dense with an abundance of roots from the trees, as well as the densely overgrown grass. In this 30 cm level, fragments of thick-walled and thin-walled wheel-thrown pottery were found belonging to water jugs and pithoid-type storage vessels. Along with wheel-thrown ceramics, two portions of glazed, fineware vessels were found. One fragment, the lower half of a glazed bowl with a partially preserved circular base and covered with a turquoise and transparent, glass glaze was found.

The second fragment belonged to a partially preserved, glazed oil lamp. It included a reservoir base with handle. The fragment was covered inside and out with a green pigment and a transparent glaze.

Fragments of fired bricks were also found among the potsherds of wheel-thrown ceramics. A tamga (tribal or manufacturer’s) stamp was discovered on one of the bricks. Along with ceramics, the excavated layer contained fragments of sheep and cattle bones.

The pottery in this section of the unit was represented by fragments of thick-walled and thin-walled vessels. Of special note was a rim fragment of a wide-necked water jug and the rim and sidewall of a thick-walled jug. Soot and traces of exposure to fire was found on some of the pottery sherds. These pottery fragments included those belonging to tableware (pots and cauldrons).

Among the significant number of glazed ceramics were three fragments of high-status pottery from a bowl (or cup) which were covered on both sides with a light-turquoise paint and transparent glaze. The fabric from these fragments appeared to be celadon with absolutely no inclusions. Its fine quality indicates that it was a probable import (See section 5.4, pgs. 70-71; 131).

Also, of special note, was the discovery of a fragment of black-burnished pottery from a thin-walled cup. The fragment was covered with a black slip on both sides and smoothed, or burnished, prior to firing.

As soil removal continued along the central section and western edge of the locus, along with fragments of wheel-thrown ceramics, the rim of a large pot; the walls of a water jug; as well as a fragment of the spout of a narrow-necked jug were revealed. Fragments of the lower wall and the base from water-bearing jugs and storage jars were detected in the layer.

The fragment of a tandoor (furnace/oven) cover was found in the northern part of the unit. The smoothed side of the cover contained an inscribed image of what appears to be a

evergreen tree. A similar tree-type inscription is found on vessels from a similar time period (13th – 15th centuries) on vessels at Otrar (See Akishev, et. al, 163).

Among the glazed ceramics, one find included another oil lamp covered with a green glaze. At a different depth, a partially preserved fragment of an oil lamp with a faceted reservoir was discovered. Its top was attached to a loop-shaped handle with a triangular thumb rest whose surface was decorated with stamped floral ornament with what could be interpreted as being in a cruciform shape. Similar lamps are found in the layers of the 13th-14th centuries in ancient settlements on the territory of Zhetisu (Semirechye) and southern Kazakhstan, but not with this particular thumb rest design. (See section 5.3, pgs. 57-69 for further discussion).

Additional pottery found in the locus included sidewall fragments from a water jug with a drill hole in the lower section just above the base which probably served as a water spout. This layer also contained sidewall fragments from tableware such as pots and cauldrons. In addition, fragments of loop-shaped and knob handles from storage jars and jugs were found.

Glazed ceramics also included blue-glazed fragments and blue glazed tea bowl (kese) fragments. Two additional fragments of Celadon pottery decorated on both sides in light turquoise and matte white were discovered. A fragment of a tea bowl of a matte white color was also found made in the same style, the inner side of which was decorated with floral ornaments similar to those mentioned above. In these instances, the fabric appears grayish fine paste with no inclusions (for examples see pg 70-71, Ib_20_C_IV_212_I010).

Finally, a unique spout from a water jug with alternating ridges and decorated with alternating depressions was also found (see pg. 131-fig. 158; Serial no. Ib_20_C_IV_212_I011).

Locus 213. Kayrak (gravestone). In the central section of the U-12/L-212 during excavations at an elevation x - 410209.333; y- 4887007.524 and a level of 597.657 m asl., a flat gravestone (kayrak) of white granite was found that was damaged on all four side. On one side, a partially damaged cross inscription with flared-ends was noted. The stone’s damage was probably due to plowing and was likely originally part of a much larger stone. This is the first kayrak found at Ilibalyk made of white granite. The stone measures 22 x 10 x 7 cm. The incised cross is 9 x 9 cm with a depth of 0.3 cm. (Serial no. Ib_20_С_IV_213, see pgs 50; 132-fig.165).

Locus 214. The collapse of a tandoor (oven/furnace). During clearing of the section along the northern edge of Unit 12 at 3.70 m south of the designated boundary at mark x: 410201.844; y: 4886998.031 at a level of 597.814 m asl. scattered wall fragments of a tandoor (furnace/oven) were found. The tandoor was placed into a dense, loamy area. The inner surface of the tandoor wall was covered with a white slip. The walls of the tandoor, as well as the loamy space of the surrounding area were calcined which, as expected, indicated burning. Due to the significantly damaged walls of the tandoor, its actual dimensions could not be estimated.

Initially, this feature was puzzling due to the fact that it was approximately 20 meters south of Unit 3 which contained several graves, including one child’s grave at about the same level, suggesting that the tandoor was contemporary with the cemetery. This may indicate possible funerary meal preparation on site, or the furnace was used for heating purposes. Either, or both, functions may have been utilized since eventually walls from the structure in U-12 were discovered nearby. It is yet to be determined if this particular furnace was inside or outside the structure, as opposed to the one found inside the outer eastern wall (L-220) and will need

to be examined further at a later date. Tandoors do not appear to be precisely dated according to size or type in the archaeological record in Central Asia and can span over several centuries.

Locus 215. Fired bricks near the western boundary of the excavation site. While digging the layer of soil to a shovel-blade’s depth, near the western boundary of Unit 12 at mark x: 410188.565; y: 4887004.514 at a depth of 597.484 m. asl, two fragments of red fired bricks were found in a dense, loamy layer of soil.

The first brick measured 18 x 20 x 6 cm and lay flat in the soil. Adjoining it laying slanted on its edge was the second brick fragment which measured was 20 x ? x 6 cm. (Due to its placement in the soil, the exact measurement of this second brick could not be obtained). The surrounding surface around the bricks was tamped down and damaged by roots of a nearby tree. The feature was not excavated any further and will have to be examined at a later date. In this same sector a small piece of fluorite was found that appeared to be part of a vessel. If so, this would indicate another high-status fragment. The color of the fluorite is light green with white flecks and black impurities in the crystal.

Locus 216. Child's grave. While clearing a space along the northern edge of Unit 12, approximately 3.70 m south of the boundary at mark x: 410211.640; y: 4887009.038; at a level of 597.618 m asl. scattered human infant bones were found within a 60 x 40 cm area. The skeletal remains belonged to an infant child, either a still born or just a few weeks old. The bones, like the skull, were badly damaged. Judging by the surviving remains, the child was buried at a shallow depth, with its head to the west. The sex of the child and the time of burial could not be established. (Appendix F, Field Forensic Analysis, pg. 187).

Locus 217. Boulder. Following clearing the topsoil surface and while digging the second layer of soil in the central section of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410198.877; y: 4887001.931 and at a level of Z: 597.452 m asl. a large boulder-sized stone was discovered along with what eventually was revealed as a long northern wall of the room of the exposed structure (locus 250), lined with mud bricks with an east-west orientation. In the central part of the wall’s masonry, this large stone with an irregular circular shape was mounted level with the full height of the wall. The top of the stone was flat, and its edges were rounded. The exact purpose of the stone in the masonry of the wall was not established. One possible interpretation is that it served as a base for a wooden column. The stone measured 65 x 41 x 26 cm.

Locus 218. Cluster of 4 bricks. While clearing at a shovel's depth, near the northern edge of Unit 12 at level 597.666 m asl., a fragment of a red fired square brick was found in a dense, loamy layer. It measured 25.5 x 25.5 x 5 cm. Fourteen cm below it, at a level of 597.520 m asl. lay a similar square-shaped brick measuring 27 x 27 x 5 cm. Eventually, a total of 4 bricks were found in the vicinity. Bricks 1, 3 and 4, located at different depths and on different sides, formed a type of triangle formation. From brick 1 to brick 3 were separated by 1 m and lay to the east. From brick 3 to the pentagonal-shaped brick 4, located in the northeast, the distance extended 89 cm. From the pentagonal brick 4, the distance to brick 1 was 1.24 m. A distance of 58 cm separated brick 3 and brick 2 which was located next to brick 1, but below that latter’s level. Three of the four bricks (1,3, and 4) were at a similar level, while brick 2 was at a lower depth by 14 cm. Determining the exact purpose of the brickwork proved problematic, however, it is possible that these bricks were part of a northern entrance for the structure associated with the Room 2 which may have been a corridor (L-242). The bricks, if they were associated with a threshold archway could have collapsed randomly as discovered.

The four bricks are described as follows:

Brick 1. This fired brick had a square shape measuring 25.5 x 25.5 x 5 cm. Coordinates: x: 410203.883; y: 410204.643; at 597.666 m. asl

Brick 2. This fired brick had a square shape measuring 27 x 27 x 5 cm. Coordinates: x: 410204.249; y: 4887004.263; at a level of 597.520 m asl.

Brick 3. This fired brick had a square shape measuring 28 x 28 x 5 cm. Coordinates: x: 410204.966; y: 4887004.423; at a depth of Z 597.650 m asl.

Brick 4. This brick had a pentagonal shape measuring 26.5 x 21 x 5 cm. Coordinates: x: 410203.883; Y: 4887004.150, at a depth of 597.666 m asl.

Locus 219. Boulder. Following the clearing of the topsoil in Unit 12 and while digging the second layer of soil in the central section of the unit at UTM coordinates x: 410203.254; y: 4886998.962; at a depth of 597.434 m asl, excavators eventually discovered a long northern wall (locus 250) associated with what was designated as Room 1 (Locus 230). It was lined with mud bricks in an east-west direction. In the eastern part of the wall’s masonry, this large, oval- shaped boulder-sized stone was discovered and mounted to the full height level with the wall. The top of the stone was flat, and the edges of the stone were rounded. The exact purpose of the stone in the masonry of the wall was not established. One possible interpretation is that it served as a base for a wooden column. The stone measured 58 x 60-40 x 18 cm.

Locus 220. The collapse of a tandoor (furnace/oven). While clearing the space of the eastern section designated Room 3 (L- 240) at UTM coordinates x: 410211.081; y: 4886999.981; at a level of 597.647 m. asl, scattered tandoor (oven) walls were discovered. The tandoor was placed into a dense, loamy area. It was round in shape with partially preserved 4 cm thick ceramic walls. The inner surface of the tandoor wall was covered with a white slip and incised prior to firing with horizontal and oblique lines. The walls of the tandoor, as well as the loamy space of the locus, were calcined. The remaining part of the preserved wall in the middle section was 50 cm in diameter. Due to the significantly damaged walls of the tandoor, its actual dimensions could not be estimated. This oven was located within the eastern outer wall (L-240) demonstrating that this feature was probably providing heat to the room and perhaps the entire building.

Locus 221. Ash spot. A black ash spot located 2 m from the southern boundary of Unit 12 at coordinates x: 410204.377; y: 4886999.186 at a level of 597.646 m asl. The locus consisted of two oval spots, or areas of burning, located 20 cm adjacent to each other and just south of the southern wall (L-246). The size of the first spot was 1.20 x 0.90 m. The size of the second spot was 1.40 x 0.90 m. Time prohibited further investigation.

Locus 222. Ash spot. While clearing the soil layer in the far southwestern part of Unit 12, an ash spot was found 1.80 m from L-223. The black ash spot had an amorphous shape and measured 38 x 62 cm in size. It was located 80 cm from the southern edge of Unit 12 at coordinates of x: 410189.007; y: 4886991.055 at a depth of 597.155 m. asl and just south of the southern wall section (L-246). The stain consisted of ash and soot, with the inclusion of loamy soil. The thickness of the spot was at least to a depth of 10 cmbs. Within the borders of the spot, grass and nearby tree roots were detected. A significant amount of pottery and animal

bones were found in this section, thus there is a possibility that this is a midden. Time prohibited further investigation.

Locus 223. Ash spot. While clearing the soil layer in the southwestern part of the excavation site, an ash spot was found 1.80 m from L-222. The black ash spot was of an amorphous shape and measured 38 x 62 cm in size and was located 70 cm from the southern edge of the excavation at coordinates x: 410191.982; y: 4886991.170 at a depth of 597.193 m asl. The stain consisted of ash and soot, with the inclusion of loamy soil. The thickness of the spot was at least to a depth of 10 cmbs. Within the borders of the spot, grass and nearby tree roots were detected. A significant amount of pottery and animal bones were found in this section, thus there is a possibility that this is a midden. Time prohibited further investigation.

Locus 224. Boulder. While clearing the soil around Locus-230 (Room 1) a large whitish- gray boulder which rested on the ledge of the southern wall (L-253) near the possible southern entrance to the structure of Unit 12 was discovered. It lay at a level of 597.404 m asl. and lay

4.8 meters to the west of the stone identified at Locus 219 and 1.8 meters to the east the smaller stone at L-225. No masonry or mudbricks were detected around the stone. The stone measured 32 x 23 cm length and width, but it was not removed from the soil, thus its height is unknown.

Locus 225. Boulder. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the central part of Unit 12 (L-230) at UTM coordinates x: 410202.643; y: 4887011.787 at a level of 597.049 m asl., excavators found this stone along the southern wall (Locus 253) at the edge of Room 1 (Locus 230). It was lined with mud bricks in an east-west direction. In the central part of the masonry of the wall, this large, oval-shaped stone was mounted to the full height even with the wall. The top of the stone was flattened, and the edges of the stone were rounded. The exact purpose of the stone in the masonry of the wall was not established. One possible interpretation is that it served as a base for a wooden column. It could also have been associated with a door threshold if, indeed, the possible southern entrance is to the east of this stone. It measured 30 x 25 x 8 cm.

Locus 226. Boulder. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the western part of Unit 12, excavators found this boulder-sized stone along the long southern wall segment (Locus 253) at the edge of Room 1 (Locus 230). It was lined with mud bricks in an east-west direction. This stone was located at the western end of the wall’s masonry, on the floor of the room. It was a large oval-shaped rock at UTM coordinates x: 410193.456; y: 4886997.041 at a level of 597.431 m asl. The top of the stone was flattened, and the edges of the stone were rounded. The exact purpose of the stone in the masonry of the wall was not established. One possible interpretation is that it served as a base for a wooden column. It measured 40 x 13 x 10 cm.

Locus 227. Accumulation of stones. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the southern part of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410195.423; y: 4886996.515; at a level of 597.362 m. asl. and located 90 cm south of the southern wall (Locus 247) of the Room 1 and lined with adobe bricks in an east-west direction. This locus designated a 70 x 70 cm cluster of 3 stones of various sizes and shapes. The purpose the stones’ placement near the wall has not been established. It may be indicative of rubble from collapse.

Locus 228. Boulder. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the western part of Unit 12, excavators discovered this stone along the southern wall (Locus 253) of Room 1 (Locus 230). It was lined with mud bricks in an east-west direction. This large

oval-shaped boulder was mounted to the full height level with the wall at UTM coordinates of x: 410192.589; y: 4886995.739 at a level of 597.287 m. asl. The top of the stone was flat, and the edges of the stone were rounded. The exact purpose of the stone in the masonry of the wall was not established. One possible interpretation is that it served as a base for a wooden column. It measured 40 x 39 x 10 cm.

Locus 229. A cluster of ceramics and debris. While clearing the area outside the boundaries of the structure (locus 230) on the southwest side at UTM coordinates x: 410196.247; y: 4886995.223; at a level of 597.424 m. asl. an accumulation of pottery fragments and fired brick fragments was found. Within this cluster of fragments, the rim and sidewall of a jug were found. The rim was decorated with alternating fingertip impressions along the edge. Sidewalls and rims from water-bearing vessels were also found within the cluster. The area of debris measured 50 x 60 cm.

Locus 230. Level for Room 1. While clearing a layer in the central section of Unit 12 at the surface UTM coordinates x: 410199.163; y: 4887002.264; at a level 597.462 m asl., the contours of the northern (locus 250) and southern (locus 253) walls of the room (designated Room 1) emerged. These walls were laid parallel to each other. During further clearing of the space on the west and east sides, excavators also revealed brick walls laid out parallel to each other, separated by the excavated space of the described room.

The room had a rectangular layout which measured 11 x 4.90 m. The northern wall of the room (designated locus 250) was identified and made from adobe bricks along an east-west axis. In the southern part of the room two sections of wall were also found (locus 246 and 247), also made of adobe bricks along an east-west axis. Ledges were identified along the northern and southern walls of the room adjoining the masonry. Within the masonry of the northern and southern ledges, boulders and stones of various sizes were embedded whose purpose and functionality are unknown, but one possibility is that they served as bases for wooden support columns. A wall was found on the western side of the room (identified as locus 248) which extended in a north-south direction. Both the northern (locus 250) and southern (locus 247) walls appeared to form rounded corners of the room on the western side of Room 1. On the eastern side of the room, there was a brick partition wall (locus 244) with a north-south orientation. The terminal end of the northern wall (locus 250) appeared to form a corner to the room. On the south side, the inner wall (locus 246) and the outer wall (locus 252) created a partition for the eastern section of the room. Along the southern and northern walls of the room there were ledges made of adobe bricks. On the north side, behind the wall (locus 251), there was a rectangular niche (locus 251). On the southern part of Room 1, behind the wall (locus 253) of the room, there was a partially excavated wall (locus 247), built of mud bricks with a north-south orientation.

While clearing the loose layer of loam within Room 1 (locus 230) charcoal and plant roots were detected within the room. Cultural material, such as fragments of wheel-thrown ceramics were found in the soil fill of the room. These included the lower half of a water jug; fragments of a glazed oil lamp with a loop-shaped, vertical handle that included a thumb rest containing a decorative feature with a possible cruciform design; sidewalls and a fragment of a handle from a water jug, as well as a rim and fragments belonging to another jug-type vessel.

While clearing the surface of Room 1 at UTM coordinates x: 410201.164; y: 4887001.324 at a level of Z 597.098 m asl. excavators found a tamped earthen floor. An ash spot (locus 261) and a calcination spot (locus 236) were discovered on the floor of the room

along with an accumulation of ceramic fragments (locus 237). Charcoal was detected in the excavation layer on the floor of the room along with animal bones within the room. Neither metal, nor glass items were found in the room. One pottery vessel located in the western half of Room 1 contained at least half of its remaining fragments, making reconstruction of the vessel possible (See pg. 132-fig 167).

Locus 231. Boulder. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the central section of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410203.254; y: 4886998.962 at a level of 596.963 m. asl. excavators discovered a large, oblong-shaped boulder in association with the long northern wall of Room 1 (locus 250). The wall was lined with mud bricks in an east-west orientation. This boulder was located in the eastern section of the masonry of the wall. This large oval-shaped stone was mounted to the full height of the ledge upon which it lay. The top of the stone was flat, and the edges of the stone were rounded. The exact purpose of the stone in the masonry of the wall was not established. One possible interpretation is that it served as a base for a wooden column. It measured 34 x 47 cm. Most of the stone was embedded into the masonry of the wall, so the exact height of the stone is not clear since it was not extracted.

Locus 232. Boulder. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the central part Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410203.254; y: 4886998.962; and at a level of

597.292 m. asl., this stone was discovered by excavators along the long northern wall (locus 250) of Room 1 lined with mud bricks in an east-west orientation. This large amorphous stone was in the western part of the masonry of the wall and was mounted on the full height of the ledge. The top of the stone was flat, and the edges of the stone were uneven. The exact purpose of the stone in the masonry of the wall was not established. One possible interpretation is that it served as a base for a wooden column. It measured 62 x 47 x 25 cm.

Locus 233. Burnt root from a tree. While clearing in the space of the area of the partition wall (locus 244) from the eastern side of Room 1 (locus 230), traces of burning, charcoal, and ash were found at UTM coordinates x: 410195.474; y: 4887001.735; beginning at a level of

597.351 m asl reaching a level of 596.963 m. asl. just below the probable dirt floor level. Later, while clearing a layer of ash near the wall, excavators found the burnt remains of a root system that was from a trunk of a tree. The diameter of the spot was 32 cm. The tree trunk had almost burned away completely. A terminal root fragment remained on the loamy floor. This may provide an explanation for the significant amount of burning within Room 1 discovered, yet this is indeterminate. If this was a major source of burning, then it would suggest a significant time lapse between the detected burning within the structure based on the time it took for the tree to grow within the structure and subsequently be burned down. A radiocarbon sample taken of burned wood found within Room 1 to the northwest of this locus could potentially shed light as to whether the burning found from this tree was responsible for the calcine deposits within Room 1 or if they were due to destruction of the structure by fire leading to possible collapse.

Locus 234. Kayrak (gravestone). While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil in the far northern border of Unit 12 and Unit 9C while clearing Locus 185 a fragment of an oval, gray river stone with a rounded surface and a rounded oval edge was found in a layer of loose loamy soil under a system of tree roots. It was found at UTM coordinates x: 410200.989; y: 4887010.666; at a level of 597.703 m. asl at a depth of 40 cm below the surface. Upon careful examination of the rounded surface of the stone an inscribed cross with flared ends was detected. Thus, the stone was identified as a kayrak (gravestone).

The kayrak lay in flat, loamy soil. The upper edge has an arched shape with traces of chipping damage likely due to plowing. The surface of the stone was oval in the profile. On one of the sides, a cross was inscribed using the method of continuous chisel points and further partial grinding of the embossed image. The size of the cross is 12 x 9 cm. The four crossbars connected in the center and the ends of which are slightly bifurcated. Like the stone, the lower part of the cross is partially chipped off and damaged. The size of the kayrak is 23 x 18.5 x 7 cm. This find reintroduced the idea this section of locus 185 might actually be a grave, yet, so far this has not been determined (see locus 185 description above).

Locus 235. Fragment of burnt wood. While clearing the space around locus 185, on the northern border outside Unit 12 and Unit 9C on the dense, gray loamy soil a charred piece of wood was found at UTM coordinates x: 410202.146; y: 4887011.352 at a level of 597.025 m. asl. This piece of wood was found while clearing down to the current revealed surface of the previous season. This seems to indicate that the area was subject to burning and that this level was exposed at the time, either as part of an open courtyard, or an enclosed structure. This could also indicate that certain graves excavated at previous seasons were interred close to the original occupational surface. It was indeterminate if this piece of wood was worked, or possibly part of the structure from U-12 or part of a possible separate structure that encompassed the area of L-185. It is consistent and on the same level as much of the charcoal fragments found throughout the gray colored soil that was eventually exposed across the expanded section of L-185.

Locus 236. Boulder. While clearing the soil tamped floor in the eastern part of Room 1 (locus 230) a single stone in an inclined position was found with accompanying ash and a calcination spot at UTM coordinates x: 410197.101; y: 4886998.920; at a level of 597.050 m asl. The stone is a flattened oval shape with traces of chipping along the edges. The size of the stone is 15.7 x 19 x 8 cm. This stone appears to have rested or collapsed onto the original tamped floor surface.

Locus 237. Cluster of ceramics. While clearing the earthen tamped floor in the central part of Room 1 (Locus 230), a cluster of pottery fragments was recorded and excavated within ash and an incineration spot at UTM coordinates x: 410197.101; y: 4886998.920 at a level of

597.050 m. asl. These fragments of ceramic vessels were located compactly in an area of 70 x 90 cm. The potsherds included fragments from ornamented water jugs of wheel-thrown red- clay and gray-clay vessels; as well as fragments of the wall and rim of a deep bowl These latter fragments contained enough sherds that made partial reconstruction of the vessel possible. (See pg. 132, fig. 167)

Locus 238. A platform of adobe blocks. While clearing loose loam in the eastern part of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410212.526; y: 4886999.576; at a level of 597.537 m. asl, excavators found on the surface mud blocks of various sizes which were bonded with clay mortar. The blocks appeared laid out on the floor of the Room 3 (locus 240) with a north-south orientation. The size of the cleared area was 5.30 x 2.50 m, which is an area of 13.25 m2. The size of the blocks was not uniform and varied from 40 x 20 cm to 56 x 28 cm. In the cleared area during excavations, fragments of ceramic vessels were found which included water jugs, decorated wheel-thrown red clay and gray clay vessels, as well as fragments of sidewalls and the rim of a storage vessel. Along the border of this site, fragments of sheep and cattle bones were also found.

Locus 239. Eastern wall of Room 3 (locus 240). While clearing a layer in the eastern part of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410193.848; y: 4887008.239; at a level of 597.585 m asl. the contours of a wall of what was designated Room 3 was found. It was lined with mud bricks along a north-south axis and was made of mud bricks of a standard size 40 x 20 x 5 cm. They were joined together with clay mortar. On the west side of the room, at the base of the masonry of the wall, a tandoor (oven/furnace) (locus 220) was found. On the east side, a location lined with mud blocks (locus 238) was discovered that was laid out in a north-south orientation. To the north, the masonry of the wall seems to cut off near the designated site (locus 238). There was a wall on the south side which adjoined the corner to a similar location.

Locus 240. Room 3. While clearing a layer in the eastern part of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410211.574; y: 4886999.794; at a level of 597.694 m. asl, the contours of the eastern wall (locus 239) and western wall (locus 241) of Room 3 emerged. They were laid out parallel to each other in a north-south orientation. During further clearing in this area on the western and eastern sides, excavators revealed the brick walls laid out parallel to each other and separated by the excavated space of the described room. The room had a rectangular layout, measuring 6.40 x 4.50 m, with an area of 28.8 m2.

On the west side of Room 3, a wall (locus 241) was found laid out with a north-south orientation. On the south side, this wall adjoins to a another wall with its terminal end (locus 245). On the east side of the room a brick wall (locus 239) with a north-south orientation was also delineated. Along the eastern wall (locus 239) near the masonry of the wall, a tandoor (oven/furnace) was also discovered (locus 220). While clearing of the loose layer of loam within the room, excavators detected charcoal and plant roots inside the room. Fragments of wheel-thrown ceramics were found within the fill of the room including the lower portions of water-bearing jugs, as well as the sidewall and fragment of a handle from a water-bearing jug.

Locus 241. Eastern wall of Room 3 (Locus 240). While clearing a layer in the eastern part of Unit 12 at the surface level to the east of the excavated Room 1 (locus 230), the contours of a wall of a room made of pakhsa (tamped earth) appeared which was oriented along a north- south axis. It was found at UTM coordinates x: 410201.359; y: 4886996.362; at a level of 597.685 m. asl. Its masonry was made of a dense, light brown soil. The size of the wall was

6.10 x 0.60 m. To the east, parallel to this described wall, there was an eastern wall made of mud bricks (locus 239) near which a tandoor (oven/furnace) was located (locus 220). On the west side of locus 241 a narrow, rectangular area, presumably a corridor space (locus 242) extended in a north-south orientation. The masonry of the wall cut off at the northern side of the designated locus (locus 238). On the south side, the wall adjoined the other wall at its terminal end to the wall segment labeled locus 245.

Locus 242. Room 2 (corridor?). While clearing a layer in the eastern part of Unit 12 behind excavated Room 1 (locus 230). the outlines of tamped earth and grooved walls of the room emerged. It was laid out parallel with the wall designated L-241 with a north-south orientation. The surface level UTM coordinates were x: 410206.196; y: 4886999.927 at a level of 597.707 m. asl. Further clearing of the space on the western and eastern sides, revealed brick walls laid out parallel to each other and separated by the excavated space of the described room. The room (corridor?) had a rectangular layout measuring 4.80 x 1 m, with an area of 4.8 m2. On the western side of the room a brick wall (locus 243) was constructed of adobe bricks along a north-south axis. To the south of the building, a segment of the outer southern wall (locus 245) is visible, also made of mud brick. To the east of the room was a wall (locus 241), oriented in a north-south direction. On the south side, the currently described wall adjoined its terminal

end with the southern wall segment (locus 245). The currently exposed floor of the room was a loamy, dense, light-brown soil. While clearing this loam, charcoal and plant roots were detected inside on the floor of the room. In addition, significant glazed pottery finds were found within this section, including a finely decorated blue glazed pottery fragment with painted decoration and almost all the fragments of a green-glazed lamp (serial no. Ib_20_C_IV_212_I016, pgs. 58-fig. 5.10; 132-fig. 167).

Locus 243. Western wall of Room 2 (locus 242, corridor?). While clearing the layer in the eastern part Unit 12 (near locus 230) at UTM coordinates x: 410205.542; y: 4887000.289; at a level of 597.688 m. asl., the contours of the wall of Room 2 appeared. It was constructed of adobe bricks along a north-south axis. The mud bricks had a standard size 40 x 20 x 5 cm and were fastened together with clay mortar. To the east side was a pakhsa (tamped earth) wall (locus 241) which also had a north-south orientation. To the south, the wall (L-243) adjoined the brick wall segment (locus 245) at its terminal end. The larger, rectangular Room 1 (locus 230) was located to the west of the wall which is separated by the partition wall (locus 244). The wall measured 3.50 x 0.80 m.

Locus 244. Partition wall. While clearing the layer in the eastern part of Room 1 (locus 230) at UTM coordinates x: 410205.786; y: 4886995.975 at a level of 597.646 m. asl. the contours of a wall on the east side of the room were revealed. It was constructed of adobe bricks in two courses along an east-west orientation. The masonry was dense and made of a light brown soil. The wall measured 5.40 x 0.40 m. To the east, perpendicular to the described wall, was an eastern wall made of mud bricks (locus 243), behind which is located a Room 2 (corridor?) (locus 242). On the western side is the area of rectangular Room 1 (locus 230) extending in an east-west orientation. To the north, the masonry of the wall connected to the wall identified as locus 250, behind which is a possible niche (?) (locus 251) which formed the northeastern corner of the room. The terminal end of the wall to the south adjoined to the brick wall (locus 246) and to the southern ledge of the side of the wall which adjoined to the end of the southern wall segment (locus 245). The lower elevation of the wall is 597.085 m asl., which is the floor elevation level for locus 230, the height of the remaining wall is 57 cm from the floor surface.

Locus 245. Section of the southern outer wall. While clearing a layer of loose loam on the eastern side of Unit 12, outside the identified Room 1 (locus 230) at UTM coordinates x: 410209.474; y: 4886999.858; at a level of 597.656 m. asl, the contours of a brick wall of the room(s)located to the east of Room 1 (locus 230) behind the dividing wall (locus 244). This described section of the wall was lined with mud bricks along an east-west axis. The preserved masonry of the wall is 1.5 bricks wide. The mud bricks were of standard size 40 x 20 x 5 cm and fastened together with clay mortar.

On the north, the masonry of the dividing wall adjoined the wall identified as locus 244. At this point, from the eastern edge of the wall masonry, the terminal end adjoined the turn in the wall (locus 241), which formed the southeast corner of the room (corridor?; locus 242). This wall segment measured 4.80 x 0.90 m.

Locus 246. Southwest section of the southern wall of Room 1 (Locus 230). While clearing a layer of loose loam in the central part of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410204.800; y: 4886999.600; at a level of 597.401 m. asl. the outlines of the [southern] wall of Room 1 appeared. It was constructed of adobe bricks along an east-west axis. The preserved masonry

of the wall was 3 bricks wide. The mud bricks were of standard size 40 x 20 x 5, cm and fastened together with clay mortar.

To the north along this wall was a ledge (locus 252) which extended the length of the southern wall. To the east, a dividing wall (locus 244) adjoined the wall with its terminal end and formed a corner of the room. At this point, the terminal end of the wall joined the masonry of the wall segment (locus 245). On the western side, the masonry of the wall was interrupted and formed a space that could be interpreted as an entrance, after which the southern section of the outer wall of the room began. At the southwestern end of the wall, a stone was embedded in the masonry (locus 228) which lay on the surface of the ledge. Next to the wall was another boulder (locus 219). This wall segment measured 7.30 x 0.70 m.

Locus 247. Southeast section of the outer wall of Room 1 (locus 230). While clearing a layer of loose loam 6 m from the southwestern wall of the structure in Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410197.373; y: 4886993.034; at a level of 597.270 m. asl., the contours of this wall section of Room 1 were revealed. It was constructed of mud bricks and oriented along a north-south axis. The preserved masonry of the wall was 1 brick wide. The mud bricks measured of a standard size 40 x 20 x 5 cm and were fastened together with clay mortar.

To the west of the described wall, the western outer wall (locus 248) adjoined the terminal end and formed a rounded corner in the southwest side of the room. On the east side, the masonry of the wall was interrupted and formed a gap that could possibly be interpreted as a southern entrance, after which the northern section of the outer wall of the room began. At the southwestern end of the wall, a stone was embedded in the masonry (locus 228) and lay on the surface. There was a boulder stone near the wall (locus 226). The wall measured 5.30 x 0.80 m.

Locus 248. Western outer wall of Room 1 (Locus 230). While clearing a layer of loose loam of Unit 12 at x: 410193.271; y: 4886995.816; at a level of 597.302 m. asl. the contours of a wall of Room 1 constructed of mud bricks were found that was oriented along a north- south axis. The preserved masonry of the wall was 1 brick wide. The mud bricks were of standard size 40 x 20 x 5 cm and fastened together with clay mortar.

To the north, the wall, adjoined the terminal end of the wall (locus 250) and formed a rounded corner on the northwest side of the room. On the south side, the wall, adjoining the end of the wall (locus 247), forming a rounded corner to the room. The size of the wall is 4.30 x 0.80 m.

Locus 249. L-shaped layout of adobe bricks. This L-shaped layout of adobe bricks was located on the north side of the northern ledge (locus 250) of Room 1 (locus 230) at UTM coordinates x: 410202.275; y: 4887003.025; at a level of 597.494 m. asl.

The masonry was a section of the remains of the northern wall of the building and measured 1.8 meters wide. To the east of this masonry was the inner room of a possible niche (?) (locus 251). On the north side of this feature was a hardened area of tamped earth (locus 255). The masonry was constructed of mud bricks of a standard size 40 x 20 x 5 cm and fastened together with clay mortar. The edges of the masonry bear traces of coating or plaster whose thickness was 3 to 4 cm. The extended section of the masonry, located on the east side, measured north to south 1.42 cm. The western, shortened side of the masonry measured 84 cm south to north. To the west, the wall (locus 248) was oriented north-south and formed a rounded

corner to the northeast side of the room. A wall (locus 244) lay on the east side in a north-south orientation.

Locus 250. Northern inner ledge of Room 1 (Locus 230). While clearing a layer in the central part of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410193.848; y: 4887006.017; at a level of

597.355 m. asl. the outlines of the northern inner ledge (locus 250) of Room 1 were revealed. It was constructed of adobe bricks along an east-west axis. The mud bricks were of standard size 40 x 20 x 5 cm and were fastened together with clay mortar. Within the masonry, in approximately 3.5 meter intervals, 3 large boulder-sized flat stones of varying sizes were installed whose purpose and functionality are unknown, although one possible interpretation is that they served as foundations for wooden columns. To the west, lay a wall (locus 248), oriented in a north-south direction which forming a rounded northwest corner of the room. On the east side a brick wall (locus 244), was oriented in a north-south direction. Adjoined to the terminal end to the wall on the north, this wall formed the northeast corner of the room. On the south side the other inner ledge on the southern side of Room 1 adjoined the terminal side of wall (locus 252) and possible walkway (locus 253) and enclosed the eastern area of the room. The height of the ledge relative to the floor of Room 1 (locus 230) was 27 cm.

Locus 251. Northern niche. While clearing the layer in the central part of Unit 12, the contour of a possible northern niche emerged. Behind the northern wall (locus 250) of the structure a rectangular niche was found at UTM coordinates x: 410200.298; y: 4887006.017; at a level of 597.477 m. asl. The walls were made of adobe bricks. Further clearing of the space from the north, west, and east sides revealed a masonry feature of light brown loose loam that was rectangular in shape and located to the east of the L-shaped masonry (locus 249) and south of the hardened surface (locus 255). Outside the northeastern part of the niche, 4 fired square bricks were discovered (locus 218).

The niche had a rectangular layout measuring 4.30 x 1.50 m. The inner walls of the niche on the western, northern and eastern sides were covered with a layer of plaster from 3 to 5 cm thick. A layer of plaster along with a light brown loamy soil was visible after cleaning.

Locus 252. Southern inner ledge of Room 1 (Locus 230). While clearing the surface of Room 1 (locus 230) from the south side at UTM coordinates x: 10201.164; y: 4887001.324; at a level of 597.270 m. asl. excavators found an inner ledge made of mud bricks near the southern outer wall. The measurements of the inner ledge of the southern wall were 7.30 x 0.70 m. The height of the ledge in relation to the floor of Room 1 (locus 230) was 40 cm.

This protrusion was located just north along the south wall of the structure. The ledge was lined with mud bricks which measured to a standard size of 40 x 20 x 5 cm with an east- west orientation. A boulder-sized stone was located on the southeast ledge (locus 219). The wall partition (locus 244) was abutting the ledge from the northeast. On the west side, the masonry of the ledge terminates, forming a possible southern entrance into Room 1.

Locus 253. Wall or brick walking path. While clearing a layer in the southern part of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410201.595; y: 4886992.945; at a level of 597.320 m. asl. the contours of a wall lined with mud bricks three courses wide was found. It was oriented along a north-south axis. The masonry was made of a dense, light brown soil. The wall measured

2.40 x 1 m. The wall lay to the south of the structure and was oriented almost perpendicular to Room 1 (locus 230). We interpret this as a possible passageway or brick walking path to the southern entrance to the Room 1 (locus 230). It is unlikely to be a wall since it is not completely

parallel and is on a slightly different orientation. However, further examination at a later date will be necessary to verify this interpretation.

Locus 254. Wall of a courtyard. While clearing the site in the northern section of Unit 12 (locus 255) at UTM coordinates x: 410201.595; y: 4886992.945; at a level of 597.556 m. asl. the contours of a wall lined with mud bricks emerged. It was one course wide and oriented along an east-west axis and then made a turn to the south at the eastern side. The masonry was only partially preserved and damaged by plant roots. On the wall, a plaster coating, 2 to 4 cm thick, was also partially preserved. The wall appeared to separate the area (locus 255), from the gray, loamy area to the north (locus 185). The wall measured 2.40 x 1 m. The presence of plaster seems to raise the question as to whether this wall was on the interior of a roofed structure.

Locus 255. Hardened area. An area of hardened, compacted soil and possible mud brick measuring 7.90 x 3.10 m with a surface area of 24.5 m2 was located in the northern section of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410203.746; y: 4887007.079; at a level of 597.487 m. asl. This feature of dense, light gray loamy soil was laid out in an east-west orientation with a slight depression. On the south side, the feature was adjoined by an L-shaped layout of adobe bricks (locus 249), to the southeast, the area was adjacent to the rectangular niche (locus 251) of the structure in U-12. To the north, this feature was separated from a similar feature (locus 185) and by a partially preserved brick wall (locus 254). To the northwestern part of this area there was a feature containing a cluster of five gray mud bricks (locus 256) with an unknown function. In the northwestern corner, a brick and loam structure adjoined the site (Loci 257, 258). To the west, the area was slightly elevated. The western edge of the feature was rounded. At this end, the feature consisted of a thick loamy gray layer 6 to 7 cm thick. While clearing the paved loamy area, charcoal and charred wood of various diameters and sizes were detected throughout the area. The current interpretation of this feature is that it may be an outer courtyard to the structure of U-12, but it may also be part of a separate roofed structure or an extension to the structure of U-12. These hypotheses will have to be examined at a later date.

Locus 256. Masonry with five bricks. A masonry feature measuring 1x 0.40 m consisting of 5 adobe bricks was located to the north of the hardened soil feature (locus 255) at UTM coordinates x: 410201.777; y: 4887005.216; at a level of 597.520 m. asl. The masonry was laid out with an east-west orientation numbering five bricks, three of which measured 40 x 20 cm and the other 2 measured 36 x 18 cm. The brickwork was fastened with clay mortar.

Locus 257. A feature of bricks and loam. An excavation feature measuring 2.10 x 0.80 m was located to the north of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410199.902; y: 4887002.926; at a level of 597.364 m. asl. It was characterized as a rectangular feature comprised of a loose light-brown loam and was located on the southern side of the bricks and loam found at locus

258. To the south of the feature was the area of hardened soil (locus 255). From the western and eastern sides, along the edges of the feature, excavators discovered a line of mud bricks. Between the bricks and the feature, a 5 cm thick layer of plaster was detected. Like the feature in locus 258, this feature appeared to have been part of a single, structural whole, possibly the threshold of the building. An alternative interpretation is that this may be a grave chamber based on the variation of color from the surrounding, gray-colored soil. Given the context of being so close to the existing cemetery in Area C, future excavations will examine this feature to see if it is a grave or not. If there is a grave, then the possibility of the feature that encompasses locus 185 may be a mausoleum or a possible burial in conjunction with the structure in U-12.

Locus 258. A feature of bricks and loam. A brick-and-loam lining was found in the northern section of Unit 12 which lay immediately to the south side of the previously identified and excavated loamy area in locus 185. The feature measured 2.30 x 0.70 m and was at UTM coordinates x: 410198.524; y: 4887007.636 at a level of 597.254 m. asl. The feature consisted of mud blocks, 40-42 x 20 cm in size. The mud blocks were a gray color made of well- variegated gray, loamy clay. The edges of the feature on the western and eastern sides were rounded and lined with adobe bricks. On the southern side of the masonry lay a rectangular, loamy area 1.80 m long from east to west, 0.50 m wide. The described area was part of a single structure of laid bricks. On the south side, the described feature was adjoined by another feature of light-brown loam (locus 257). To the north, a feature of hardened soil adjoined the feature (locus 185).

Locus 259. A feature of gray mud blocks. This locus designated a mud-brick feature measuring 1.36 x 2.05 m with an area of 11.85 m2 located in the northwest sector of Unit 12 at UTM coordinates x: 410197.787; y: 4887008.979; at a level of 597.445 m. asl. The square- shaped feature was made of mud blocks which measured 40 x 20 cm. To the north side, the feature was bordered by a previously excavated area of hardened soil (locus 185). To the south, near the feature, was an area of loamy soil. The functional purpose of the square layout of gray mud blocks has not been established.

Locus 260. Ash spot with charcoal. While clearing the soil layer in the central part of Room 1 (locus 230), an ash spot was found on the loamy-soil floor of the room 30 cm west of the calcination spot identified as locus 236. The ash spot was oval-shaped, black and gray, measuring 98 x 79 cm in size. It was located at UTM coordinates x: 410204.007; y: 4887009.511 at a level of 597.033 m asl. The spot consisted of ash and small bits of charcoal with inclusions of loamy soil from the floor of the room. The thickness of the spot was approximately 10 cm in depth. The soil was filled with root systems from grass within the spot.

Locus 261. Ash spot with charcoal. While clearing the soil layer in the western part of Room 1 (locus 230), an ash spot was found on the loamy floor of the room 30 cm west of the accumulation of ceramic fragments identified as locus 237. The oval-shaped ash spot was black and gray and measured 82 x 74 cm. It was located at UTM coordinates x: 410197.922; y: 4886998.941 at a level of 597.029 m. asl. The spot consisted of ash and small bits of charcoal with inclusions of loamy soil from the floor of the room. The thickness of the spot was approximately 10 cm in depth. The soil was filled with root systems from grass within the spot.

1.3 List of identified loci of Unit 12

Locus 185. A hardened, ash-colored area

Locus 212. Opening layer designation of Unit 12 Locus 213. Kayrak (gravestone)

Locus 214. The collapse of a tandoor (oven/furnace)

Locus 215. Fired bricks near the western boundary of the excavation site

Locus 216. Child's grave Locus 217. Boulder

Locus 218. Cluster of 4 bricks.

Locus 219. Boulder

Locus 220. The collapse of a tandoor (furnace/oven) Locus 221. Ash Spot

Locus 222. Ash spot Locus 223. Ash spot Locus 224. Boulder

Locus 225. Boulder

Locus 226. Boulder

Locus 227. Accumulation of stones Locus 228. Boulder

Locus 229. A cluster of ceramics and debris. Locus 230. Level for Room 1

Locus 231. Boulder

Locus 232. Boulder

Locus 233. Burnt root from tree Locus 234. Kayrak (gravestone) Locus 235. Fragment of a burnt wood Locus 236. Boulder

Locus 237. Cluster of ceramics

Locus 238. A platform of adobe blocks

Locus 239. Eastern wall of Room 3 (locus 240)

Locus 240. Room 3

Locus 241. Eastern wall of Room 3 (Locus 240)

Locus 242. Room 2 (corridor?)

Locus 243. Western wall of Room 2 (locus 242, corridor?) Locus 244. Partition wall

Locus 245. Section of the southern outer wall

Locus 246. Southwest section of the southern wall of Room 1 (locus 230) Locus 247. Southeast section of the outer wall of Room 1 (locus 230).

Locus 248. Western outer wall of Room 1 (locus 230) Locus 249. L-shaped layout of adobe bricks

Locus 250. Northern inner ledge of Room 1 (Locus 230) Locus 251. Northern niche

Locus 252. Southern inner ledge of Room 1 (Locus 230) Locus 253. Wall or brick walking path

Locus 254. Wall of a courtyard Locus 255. Hardened area

Locus 256. Masonry with five bricks Locus 257. A feature of bricks and loam Locus 258. A feature of bricks and loam Locus 259. A feature of gray mud blocks Locus 260. Ash spot with charcoal Locus 261. Ash spot with charcoal

1. Excavations of Unit 6 (Area B)

   1. Unit 6 General Description

      
      

      Unit 6 was located 80 meters east of the previously identified cemetery in Area C and within excavation Area B as first delineated in 2017 (see 2017 report). Unit 6 was originally dug for two reasons. First, as a test pit to see if excavators could answer the question if burials extended east from the known graves in Area C. Gravestones had been discovered near the area as early as 2016 on the surface and the following year, 3 additional stones were found (2 in situ) within 3 m2 of the delineated test pit. Since no graves had been discovered during excavations in 2017, confusion existed as to whether those particular stones had been moved either in the medieval period or due to Soviet agricultural activity in the 20th century. The second reason was to potentially determine if any architectural features were in the vicinity, since the 2017 season did reveal occupation in the form of a possible small dwelling (Unit 4) 5 to 7 meters to the northeast of this current test pit that was later designated Unit 6 as well as the remains of a large furnace (Unit 5) an additional 4 meters to the north. The discovery of the evidence of occupation surprised archaeologists since the area was thought to be a cemetery based on the presence of nearby kayraks. Yet, the eventual discovery of graves within Area C in significant numbers and in conjunction with kayraks, caused excavators to determine that a re-examination of Area B was in order, especially in light of the aforementioned research questions. In fact, such a decision proved propitious, as within Unit 6, both a kayrak and grave with an adult burial was discovered and will be described below.

      
      

      Unit 6 had a rectangular shape, with its long sides oriented along the west-east axis. The length of the unit along the line from north to south was 5.5 m, the width of the excavation along the west-east line was 5 m, making the total area is 27.5 m2. (Appendix B, pg. 105-figs. 1-4).

      
      

      Unit 6 as delineated within Area B was located at the edge of a cultivated forest, on a small plain with dense, tall herbaceous vegetation composed of wormwood type brush (Artemizia) along with smaller shrubs and undergrowth. The northern and southern sides of Area B contain wild fruit trees of the Laeagnus commutata variety (commonly known as silver oak).

      
      

      The terrain near in the area where the trench was located is relatively flat. This was due, in part because the area contained part of the dump pile from the 2017 excavation (See 2017 Field Report) and all the soil was distributed over this area following backfill operations. The structure of the current topsoil consisted of loamy soil types, mostly yellow loam with a dense consistency. On the exposed areas of the surface, dusty, gray-tinted loess deposits were noted.

      
      

   2. Unit 6 Loci Descriptions

      
      

      Prior to excavations, preparatory measures were taken. The excavation delineated, its perimeters were determined, and the site was marked out. Measures were then taken to document the unit with a written description, aerial photography and photogrammetric recordation of the site. Excavations began on Unit 6 by stripping the initial soil layer. (Appendix C, pg. 134-figs. 5-6).

      Excavations were carried out simultaneously over the entire area of the unit utilizing layer-by-layer stripping of each identified layer with the removal of the soil fill. After clearing the topsoil across the entire trench of the unit; photographic recording and documentation of the identified features and loci were then carried out noting garbage pits, ash spots, etc. After the layer-by-layer cleaning of the first tier, the entire area of Unit 6 was cleaned and the excess dust was removed using a mechanical blower. (Appendix C, pg. 135-figs. 7-8).

      
      

      A visual inspection of the excavation site revealed eight features, consisting of one trash pit (locus 001 at 597.603 m. asl); three boulder-sized stones (locus 002 at 597.677 m. asl.; locus 003 at 597.817 m. asl.; locus 004 at 597.600 m. asl.); one plunder pit [or possible post hole] (locus 006 at 597.459 m. asl); one ash spot (locus 007 at 597.459 m. asl.); one human burial (locus 008 at 597.571 m. asl.), and one kayrak-gravestone (locus 009 at 597.703 m. asl).

      
      

      In order to determine the depth of the cultural layer in the northeastern part of the unit, an exploration pit (sandage) was dug (pit 1-locus 005, at an initial level of 597.561 m. asl); (Appendix B, Figs. 9-22). In addition to the identified elements, cultural material of ceramic, osteological, and metal collections were found during the clearing of the unit’s fill.

      
      

      The ceramic materials included a whole vessel as well as fragments of rims, handles, decorated and plain sidewalls from red-clay and gray-clay vessels; all produced using either a potter’s wheel or molding. A total of 156 pottery sherds were found. The depth of discovery of this cultural material of the ceramic collection ranged from 5 to 42 cmbs across the entire area of the unit relative to the topsoil.

      
      

      The osteological collection of materials included the remains of whole and fragmented bones of cattle, sheep, horses and several avian bones. All the cultural materials were found in a soil layer which consisted of a light-yellow tinted, mixed loam with the inclusion of gray mud clods and fine charcoal, interspersed with ash.

      
      

      The cultural materials from the metal finds were represented by two copper coins; several small fragments copper fragments; and one cone-shaped object made of black metal (iron?) that was found within the human burial. (See Appendix C, pgs 153-154-figs 120 -124). Other artifacts included one large piece of pottery found in the eastern part of the unit at an elevation of 27 centimeters below the surface (cmbs).

      
      

      Finally, the stratigraphy of the eastern baulk of the unit and the eastern wall of pit 1 (locus 005) was examined. These consisted of two visible layers. The first consisted of a layer of backfill formed following the excavations at the site in 2017, which consisted of a depth of approximately 10 - 12 cm. The second stratum consisted of a thick cultural layer, about one meter deep that was saturated with fragments of pottery, collections of animal bones, and accumulations of wood combustion products and charcoal. Carpology samples were taken at a depth of 90 cmbs from within this cultural layer in the northeastern part of the trench (Appendix C, pg. 150-figs. 101-102).

      
      

      Locus 001. Trash pit (midden). This feature was located in the northern part of Unit 6 and became visible at 597.603 m. asl. at UTM coordinates x: 4887024.909, y: 410293.158. The midden had an oval shape with an uneven edge. The diameter of the pit was 45 cm with a depth of 30 cm. (Appendix C, pgs. 137-139-figs. 23-35).

      The inner fill of the pit had a mixed soil with a light-yellow hue along with the presence of a dusty soot-ash mass containing small bits of charcoal. The soil fill had a depth of approximately 25 to 30 cm. On the surface in the center of the trash pit, a large, rectangular adobe brick was noted. The brick measured 18 x 15 cm and was 3.7 cm thick. It was highly fragmented and located at the bottom of the pit.

      
      

      While examining the pit’s soil fill, pottery and animal bones were found. The pottery included small fragments of ceramic dishes, both wheel-thrown and stucco type were discovered. Wheel-thrown vessels predominated and among them were several decorative fragments. Several stucco fragments were also identified which belonged to the external ceramic base of a tandoor oven/furnace. No metal or other types of artifacts were found.

      
      

      Locus 002. A flat stone. This stone was located in the northern part of Unit 6 about 1 meter east of the midden (locus 001). The stone had a flattened, oval shape with an even edge laying on a layer of mixed light-gray loam. It appeared at 597.677 m. asl, at UTM coordinates x: 4887024.449, y: 410293.840. (Appendix C, pgs. 139-140-figs. 36-39).

      
      

      The stone was found in a horizontal position slightly raised on the southern side. The stone was 30 cm in diameter. According to the generally accepted geological classification, this stone belongs to minerals of a sedimentary origin, classified as a river stone. Visual inspection of the stone revealed minor damage with no traces of processing or inscriptions

      
      

      Locus 003. A stone. This stone was located in the northern part of Unit 6 (locus 006), at a distance of about 15 cm from the northern baulk of the unit. The stone has a spherical shape, with a chipped edge, and lay on a light-gray layer of mixed loam. It was found at a level of 597.817 m. asl. at UTM coordinates x: 4887024.969, y: 410295.184. (Appendix C, pgs. 140- 141-figs. 40-43).

      
      

      The stone was placed vertically, and the diameter of the stone is 37 cm.

      
      

      According to the generally accepted geological classification, this stone belongs to minerals of a sedimentary origin, classified as a river stone, and has a gray tint. Visual inspection of the stone revealed minor damage with no traces of processing or inscriptions.

      
      

      Locus 004. A stone. This stone was located in the northeastern part of Unit 6 approximately 40 cm from the eastern baulk of the unit. It has a sub-triangular shape, with a chipped edge and lay on a light-gray layer of mixed loam. It was found at a level of 597.600

      m. asl. at the UTM coordinates of x: 4887024.887, y: 410295.801. The stone was placed vertically, and it measured 22 x 15 x 8 cm. (Appendix C, pg. 141-figs. 44-47).

      
      

      According to the generally accepted geological classification, this stone belongs to minerals of a sedimentary origin, classified as a river stone and has a gray tint. A visual examination of the stone revealed minor damage with no traces of processing or inscriptions.

      
      

      Locus 005. Pit 1. This feature was located in the northeastern part of Unit 6, one meter from the eastern baulk of the unit. Pit 1 had a rectangular shape with an initial level of 597.561

      m. asl. at UTM coordinates x: 4887024.264, y: 410294.853. (Appendix C, pgs. 141-143-figs. 48-59).

      The pit was excavated with its longer sides oriented along the north-south axis. The length of the pit along the east-west line was 1.65 m, the width of the pit along the north-south axis was 1.15 m and was 1.3 m deep.

      
      

      The pit’s soil fill consisted of a mixed light-yellow loam interspersed with charcoal. While clearing the soil fill in the northeastern part of the pit, a copper coin was found at a depth of 37 cm. In the southeastern part of pit 1, an accumulation of light-gray river gravel was found at a level of 35 cmbs. Between 15 to 130 cmbs, cultural material, including ceramics and animal bones, were also found in the fill. The collection of ceramics included fragments of pottery and fired, red clay bricks.

      
      

      The pottery included fragments of rims and sidewalls made of both stucco and wheel- thrown vessels made of gray and red clay. Some of the potsherds included combed and floral ornamentation.

      
      

      The pottery rims have an externally, inscribed collar with ornamentation in the form of circular lines. The rim is slightly curved and has a small neck with a wide mouth. Two fragments of fired brick were found in the northeastern part of pit 1, which measured 12 x 6 x

      3.7 cm and 18 x 8.5 x 4 cm. The fragments had fingerprint impressions on their surface.

      
      

      Initially, when revealed within Unit 6, this pit was thought to be a grave, however, excavations revealed no human remains. Eventually, it was expanded and used as a sondage to determine stratigraphy with the purpose of locating the sterile layer. This was accomplished and the stratigraphy recorded.

      
      

      Locus 006. Plunder pit (possible posthole). This pit was located in the eastern part of Unit 6, found at 597.459 m. asl. at UTM coordinates x: 4887023.270 and y: 410294.835. (Appendix C, pgs. 143-144-figs. 60-63).

      
      

      It had a rounded shape and tapered towards the bottom. It was filled with mixed soil of a light- yellow shade. The diameter of the pit was 35 cm and was 40 cm deep in relation to its upper edge. Visual inspection revealed no cultural material. The base of the pit measured at

      597.091 m. asl.

      
      

      Ed. note: Subsequent investigation and discussion of this locus may indicate that this is a posthole. Its near perfect circular shape, the uniformity of the soil color which varied from the surrounding soil, and the lack of cultural material within the pit suggests that a posthole a better interpretation for this feature. If this is case, it indicates the possibility of occupation and/or a structure in proximity to human remains and the cemetery. It may possibly be associated with the features discovered in 2017 in Area B, Unit 4 which lay just a few meters to the northeast of this locus.

      
      

      Locus 007. Ash spot. This feature was located in the eastern part of Unit 6 and cut into the eastern baulk of the unit and was revealed at an elevation of 597.571 m. asl. at UTM coordinates x: 4887022.824, y: 410295.912 (Appendix C, pgs. 144-145-figs. 64-71).

      The spot had an oval shape with a curved, uneven edge and a diameter of 1.6 m extending to a depth of approximately 15 cm. The fill of the ash spot consisted of loose, mixed soil interspersed with charcoal. The bottom of the pit gently sloped inward with a high concentration of burning which contained a large spot of gray ash charcoal inclusions. In the southeastern section, above the ash pit, a complete fired brick measuring 20 x 18 x 3.2 cm was found. In the northern part of the ash spot, near the eastern side of Unit 6, a large rim fragment from a thick-walled, red-clay storage vessel was also revealed.

      
      

      Locus 008. Burial. A human skeleton, located in the southeastern section of Unit 6 found at a level of 597.776 m. asl., at UTM coordinates x: 4887021.272, y: 410295.138. (Appendix C, pgs. 145-149-figs 72-96).

      
      

      The skeleton lay in a supine position on a mixed, dense light-yellow loam. The skull, lower jaw, hands, right leg, left fibula, and feet were all missing.

      
      

      The skeleton was oriented with its upper torso to the west and lower torso to the east in an extended position. The left hand was placed under the north side of the pelvic bone with the right hand located supine along the side of the body. A red-clay pottery fragment appeared to have been placed at the elbow joint of the right arm. The right clavicle was displaced to the northwest of the body, probably due to the fact that the skull was missing due to possible plowing damage. The finger phalanges of the right hand were located on the southern side of the pelvic bone in an irregular position.

      
      

      The length of the preserved part of the skeleton from the forearm to the fragmented femur of the left leg was 105 cm. Under the upper left femur at the point of articulation where the missing patella, would have been, a fragment of a conical metal article was found. It was too corroded to determine what this item’s identity.

      
      

      While indeterminate, there was possible evidence of some sort of osteological disease or trauma on both right and left appendicular arm bones due to exceptional bulges on the anterolateral surfaces of the humerus bones with possible similar features on the radius and ulna bones of both arms. A large amount of ash was found in the area where the skull was probably located. This may indicate a funerary meal at time of interment (See Appendix F: Field Forensic Analysis, pg. 188).

      
      

      Locus 009. Kayrak-Gravestone. This fragment of a kayrak (gravestone) was made of a large flat gray shaped and inscribed stone. It was discovered during the clearing of the soil fill in the southwestern section of the unit at an elevation of 597.703 m. asl., at UTM coordinates x: 4887010.666, y: 410200.989 at a depth of 32 cmbs in a layer of loose, mixed loam. The kayrak fragment has a flattened, oval-shape with a rounded flattened edge. On the front side in the central part there is a partially visible, engraved cross with flared rays.

      
      

      The stone as it now exists measures 18.2 x 8.9 cm with a width at the lower part of 3.3 cm and the upper part of 2.7 cm. It weighs 1.5 kg. The size of the cross as currently visible is

      4.2 x 3.3 cm. The engraved cross has two surviving intersecting cross beams forming ends that are slightly bifurcated with the image of the cross partially chipped off and damaged. The stone is well preserved with chipping damage likely from plowing. The stone has been assigned the serial number: Ib_20_В_6_IV_009 (Appendix C, pg. 153-fig. 118 and Description of Kayraks, pgs. 52-53).

      This kayrak’s association with the burial in L-008 is not possible to determine because of the likelihood that the stones were disturbed by agricultural activity at a later date. Although this stone was found 1.17 m to the west of the surmised location of the skull, it was also found at a slightly lower level (7 cm) than that of the grave itself. While soil shifting could explain this discrepancy, association with the grave is far from certain. This is also complicated by the discovery of another kayrak in Unit 7, 3.7 m to the south (Unit 7, L-012, see below).

      
      

      1. List of Unit 6 Loci

         
         

         Locus 001. Trash pit (midden) Locus 002. A flat stone

         Locus 003. A stone Locus 004. A stone Locus 005. Pit 1

         Locus 006. Plunder pit (possible posthole) Locus 007. Ash spot

         Locus 008. Burial

         
         

         Locus 009. Kayrak-gravestone

         
         

         Locus 019: The backfill layer of 2017 Locus 020: A gray, mixed soil

         Locus 021: A yellow, mixed loam Locus 022: An ash spot

         Locus 023: An accumulation of pottery Locus 024: A fired brick.

         Locus 025: A mixed gray loam

         
         

         Locus 026: A layer of yellow loam with the river gravel inclusions Locus 027: A gray loess lens

         Locus 028: A layer of mixed, yellow loam Locus 029: An ash lens

         Locus 030: A fired brick.

      2. Stratigraphic Description the Eastern Baulk of Unit 6

         
         

         The stratigraphic profile of the eastern baulk of Unit 6 had a length of 5.5 m, the depth relative to the surface of the topsoil on the northern baulk was 32 cmbs, in the central section of the unit it was 30 cmbs, and in the southern baulk it was 38 cmbs. The unit profile was oriented along the north-south axis, though due to an excavation error, it was not in an exact cardinal point alignment. The cross section had a relatively even, flat shape, with a smooth edge. The zero mark was taken from the northernmost part of Unit 6. (Appendix C, pg. 150- fig. 97).

         
         

         The stratigraphic profile consisted of four layers and two inclusions as follows: Locus 019: The backfill layer of 2017

         Locus 020: A gray, mixed soil locus 021: A yellow, mixed loam locus 022: An ash spot

         locus 023: An accumulation of pottery locus 024: A fired brick.

         Locus 019. This layer was the backfill from the excavations in 2017. This designated the topsoil layer and was the uppermost layer of the stratigraphic profile. It completely covered the surface along with the grassy humus that had regrown since the previous excavations. It stretched along the entire length of the profile 0 to 5.5 m N/S.

         
         

         This layer as viewed in the profile had penetrated to a length of 10-12 cmbs. The 2017 backfill completely overlapped a layer of gray, mixed soil (locus 020).

         
         

         Locus 020. This locus identified a layer of gray, mixed soil in the profile of the baulk. It was the second layer and was completely covered from above by the topsoil layer (locus 019). In the lower part of the profile, it covered a layer of yellow mixed soil (locus 021).

         
         

         This soil layer stretched the entire length of the baulk (5.5 m) and was measured in height from the 10 cmbs mark to the 22 cmbs mark. The thickness of the layer averaged 10 to 12 cm.

         
         

         Locus 021. This locus identified a layer of yellow, mixed loam and marked the cultural layer. This soil layer of the examined stratigraphic profile was the lowest layer within this eastern baulk of Unit 6. The layer extended across the length of the unit from 0 to 5.5 m mark with a height from the 10 to 30 cm mark in the northern section of the eastern baulk and from the 15 to 42 cm mark in the southern section of the eastern baulk.

         
         

         This examined layer consisted of a relatively dense, mixed loam that contained charcoal fragments, along with sherds of red clay pottery, and animal bones.

         Locus 022. This locus identified an accumulation of pottery fragments from large and small vessels of pottery within a layer of yellow, mixed loam. It was located in the central and southern parts of the stratigraphic profile, in the eastern baulk of Unit 6. The depth of the pottery in the northern section was noted at the 1.6 to 2.1 m mark N/S at a height between 15 to 30 cmbs. In the southern part, the pottery was noted from the 3.8 to 4.05 m mark at a height from 20 to 30 cmbs. The ceramics in the layer were clustered in groups.

         
         

         Locus 023. This locus identified a fired, red clay brick. It was located in the southern part of the stratigraphic profile of the eastern baulk of Unit 6 within a layer of yellow, mixed loam. It was above an accumulation of red clay pottery fragments. The brick measured 12 x 14 cm and was located between the 4.6 to 4.74 m mark (N/S) at a depth of 18 to 25 cmbs.

         
         

         Locus 024. This locus identified an ash spot lens. The ash spot was located in the central part of the stratigraphic profile at its lower edge within a layer of mixed, yellow loam. The ash spot was identified at the 2.9 to 3.65 m mark (N/S) at a depth of 28 to 35 cmbs. It was approximately 7 cm thick. The structure of the layer contained calcined soil, dirt clods and wood combustion products along with fragments of animal bones.

         
         

      3. Stratigraphic Profile of the Eastern Baulk of Pit 1 (Locus 005)

      
      

      The stratigraphic profile of the eastern baulk of Pit 1 (see above locus 005) measured 1.2 mbs in depth relative to the level of the topsoil layer and 90 cm below the excavated floor of Unit 6. The profile was oriented along a north-south axis. In the cross section it had a relatively flat shape with an even edge. The zero mark in measurement was taken from the northern side of the pit’s baulk. (See Appendix C, pgs. 150-figs. 98-100).

      
      

      The stratigraphic profile of the eastern wall of Pit 1 consisted of five layers and one inclusion:

      
      

      Locus 025: A mixed gray loam

      
      

      Locus 026: A layer of yellow loam with the river gravel inclusions Locus 027: A gray loess lens

      Locus 028: A layer of mixed, yellow loam Locus 029: An ash lens

      Locus 030: A fired brick.

      
      

      Locus 025. This locus was a mixed, gray loam. In the stratigraphic profile of locus 005, it was the initial layer and overlapped a layer of yellow loam with river gravel inclusions (locus 026) in the lower part of the profile. It extended the length of the profile from the 0 to 1.2 m mark. It extended to a depth of 7 to 15-18 cm and in the southern section it overlapped a layer of mixed, yellow loam.

      Locus 026. This locus designated a layer of yellow loam with river gravel inclusions. It was located in the northern section of the baulk of Pit 1. In the lower section it completely overlapped the gray, loess lens and partially overlapped the layer of mixed, yellow loess. It extended from the 0 to 50 cm mark and ranged in from 5-7 to 48 cm.

      
      

      Locus 027. This gray, loess lens was the third layer in the stratigraphic profile of Pit 1, located in the northern section of the profile in a layer of yellow loam with river gravel inclusions. It had a loose structure and extended from the 15 to 27 cm mark and ranged in height from 30 to 48 cm.

      
      

      Locus 028. This mixed yellow loam layer was the thickest layer of the described stratigraphic profile of Pit 1 measuring between 65 to 70 cm and was overlapped in the upper section by all layers of the profile. It extended from the 0 to 1.2 m mark and ranged in height from 18 to 90 cm. Small fragments of charcoal were detected throughout the layer’s matrix.

      
      

      Locus 029. This ash lens was the smallest feature within Pit 1’s stratigraphic profile. Its structure consisted of accumulations of charcoal and ash. It extended from the 80 to 90 cm mark and ranged in height from 30 to 35 cm.

      
      

      Locus 030. This fired brick was identified in the southern section of the stratigraphic profile of Pit 1 within a layer of mixed, yellow loam. It extended from the 1.05 to 1.10 m mark and ranged in height from 20 to 32 cm.

      
      

      Studying the stratigraphy of the eastern baulk of Unit 6 and the eastern baulk of Pit 1 (locus 005), it can be concluded that all the described layers of stratigraphic profiles belong exclusively to one cultural layer with clear indications of human activity verified by the large number of pottery fragments of broken vessels as well as several ash spots with charcoal remains detected within the layer.

      
      

      This indicates that burials took place very near areas of occupation in Area B and seems to support the hypothesis that occupation was somewhat contemporary with the burials themselves.

      
      

2. Excavations of Unit 7 (Area B)

   1. Unit 7 General Description

      
      

      Unit 7 was located 1 meter south of Unit 6 in Area B of Field IV.

      
      

      This rectangular 5 x 5.4 m unit was oriented along a north-south and east-west axis. The length of the unit along the north-south line was 5 m and the width along the west-east line was

      5.4 m encompassing a total area is about 27 m2 (Appendix D, pgs. 156-157-figs. 1-8).

      The site on which Unit 7 was located is relatively flat and the topsoil consisted of loamy soil types with the predominate type being a yellow loam of a dense structure. The exposed surface areas included dusty, gray-tented, loess deposits. Following a layer-by-layer clearing of the first level, the entire area of Unit 7 was swept and the remaining loose dust was blown out by mechanical means. (Appendix D, pg. 157-figs. 7-8).

      During a visual inspection of the unit, six features were revealed which consisted of two trash pits (Loci 017; 018) and 4 ash pits (Loci 13 through 16). (Appendix D. Figs. 9-22). In addition to the identified loci, while clearing the soil fill, excavators found cultural material including collections of ceramics, animal bones, and metal.

      
      

      The pottery fragments included a nearly whole vessel (oil lamp), rims, handles, along with decorated and non-decorated sidewalls of red and gray-clay ceramic vessels some made via a potter’s wheel, others that were hand molded. More than 160 pottery fragments were found ranging in depth from 5 to 60 cmbs across the entire area of Unit 7.

      
      

      The osteological material included fragments of cattle, sheep and horse bones as well as several avian and rodent bones. All the cultural materials were found in a soil fill consisting of a mixed, light-yellow loam with the inclusion of gray dirt clods and small charcoal fragments interspersed with ash.

      
      

      The materials made of metal included two fragments of a corroded, iron knife. In addition, a spherical, glass paste bead from jewelry was also found. Finally, a stone (kayrak) with a chiseled cross and three rows of written inscriptions with Syriac letters was also discovered.

      
      

      Carpology samples from the soil fill of the pits of locus 014 and locus 017 were taken at depths between 50 and 80 cmbs, in the central and eastern parts of the pit, (See pgs. 45-47; Appendix D, pgs. 164-fig. 52; 168-fig. 68).

      
      

      3.2 Unit 7 Loci Descriptions Locus 011. Top layers. Layer 1.

      This initial topsoil layer was characterized by densely overgrown, prickly grass, small bushes, along with small elm trees. It had a loamy surface (Appendix D. pgs. 157-158-figs 1- 8). Within this loamy layer, a small number of red and gray-clay pottery fragments were found which included fragments of storage jar rims and water-bearing vessels; fragments of ceramic cooking pots with charred walls; handles from jugs; as well as fragments of blue-glazed bowls. Also, the soil fill included fragments of fired bricks. The layer contained cow and sheep bones. (Appendix D. pgs. 158-159-figs. 9-12, 13-26).

      Layer 2

      
      

      This excavated layer under the initial topsoil and 2017 season backfill (Layer 1) contained a loose, gray loam. At approximately the 30 cm level a dense plant root system was found. The layer’s soil was loose, with the presence of the remains of decayed plants.

      
      

      In the eastern and western parts of the unit, at a depth of 8 cm, a reddish-brown calcined spot measuring 40 x 50 cm was detected. The area around the calcined spot included gray soot and ash. A fired brick was found on top of the spot which measured 14 x 20 x 5 cm. A pottery fragment of a thick-walled vessel lay near the brick. A layer of loamy, calcined soil was detected across the entire depth of the removed layer.

      Within this removed, loamy layer, a small number of red and gray-clay pottery fragments were found which included fragments of storage jar rims and water-bearing vessels; fragments of ceramic cooking pots with charred sidewalls; and handles from jugs with both flat and round cross-sections. The glazed tableware included fragments of an emerald-colored glazed jug sidewall and a blue-glazed bowl rim. Along with pottery, the excavated layer contained fragments of fired bricks. The layer contained cow and sheep bones.

      
      

      While clearing this loamy layer under the topsoil layer, between the northeastern and eastern parts of the unit, a stone fragment of a kayrak (gravestone) with an inscribed cross and an inscription with Syriac letters was found (Appendix D. pg. 161- figs. 27-30). While clearing the second layer in the central, eastern and southern parts of the unit, small fragments of black glass paste slag were found. A dense root system from trees and grass were also detected in this layer within a thick, light-brown loamy layer of soil.

      
      

      Following removal of the second layer and while clearing the surface of the eastern, central and southern sections as well as in the northwestern corner of the unit on the dense light-brown loamy surface, silhouettes of round, oval, and flask-shaped pits appeared (Appendix D, pgs. 162-163-figs 31-42). Following removal and cleaning of the second layer of locus 011, the various pits were identified and clearing the pits internal fill began. (Appendix D, pg. 164-figs. 43-44).

      
      

      Locus 012. Kayrak (gravestone). This locus identified the kayrak-gravestone found within Unit 7. While clearing the topsoil and digging the second layer of soil (mentioned above, locus 011) in the eastern and northeastern section of Unit 7 at level UTM coordinates x: 4887017.672; y: 410294.500; at a level of 597.309 m. asl, and 40 cmbs, a fragment of a black river stone with a flat surface and two rounded edges was discovered preserved in a layer of loose, loamy soil. Upon close examination, the stone had a slightly deepened surface with an inscribed cross with flared rays at the end of the crossbars, thus identifying it as a kayrak (gravestone) (Appendix D, pgs 161-162-figs. 31-42; Appendix E, pg. 183-fig. 40; See Kayrak Descriptions, pgs. 50-52).

      
      

      The kayrak’s shape resembles a damaged square with rounded corners. The upper edge has an arched shape. The surface of the stone appears flattened on one edge while from the other edge it has a slightly naturally, flattened depression. A cross is incised on the inside of this recess using a method of steady chiseling. The cross measures 11 x 9.5 cm. The chiseled cross has four crossbeams, the ends of which are bifurcated or forked. An inscription of Syriac letters is inscribed vertically between the spaces of three of the crossbeams, with the area where the fourth incision would appear apparently chipped away. Like the stone, the image on the left side of the cross is partially chipped off and damaged. The size of the kayrak measures 16.5 x

      12.5 cm and is 5.3 cm thick.

      
      

      Locus 013. Ash pit. This round pit was located next to the eastern baulk at the edge of Unit 7. At 1.05 m to the north of this described locus, a midden was discovered (locus 017). Another ash pit (locus 015) was located 95 cm southwest of the current locus. Yet another ash pit (locus 14) was located 28 cm west. Prior to removal of the inner fill, this ash pit appeared as a gray, rounded spot with UTM coordinates x: 410294.149; y: 4887015.288 at a level of 596.993 m. asl. The fill of the pit included loam, ash, and small fragments of charcoal. The fill also contained small fragments of animal bones and sidewall potsherds. At UTM coordinates x: 410294.288; y: 4887015.030 at a level of 597.097 m. asl. the bottom of the pit was discerned and characterized by a dense loam (Appendix D. Figs. 45-50). It measured 75 x 90 cm and was 7 cm deep.

      Locus 014. Ash pit. This round pit was located on the eastern side of Unit 7. The trash pit of locus 015 was located 40 cm to the south of this described locus. Another ash pit (locus 013) was located 28 cm east of this pit. Prior to excavation, the pit appeared as a gray, rounded fill at UTM coordinates x: 410293.182; y: 4887015.309; at a level of 597.002. m. asl. Small fragments of animal bones and three fragments of ceramic sidewalls were found in the layer of ash and small inclusions of charcoal. A soil sample was taken for analysis. The dimensions of the pit were 80 x 103 cm and 11 cm deep. The bottom of the pit was located at UTM coordinates x: 410293.124; y: 4887015.203 at a level of 597.184 m. asl. and characterized by a dense, loamy bottom. (Appendix D, pg.164-figs. 49-54).

      
      

      Locus 015. Ash pit. This oval pit was located in the central section of Unit 7 at UTM coordinates x: 410292.961; y: 4887014.094; at a level of 597.038 m. asl. Another ash pit (locus 014) was located 40 cm north of this described locus. A third ash pit (locus 013) was located 28 cm east of the described pit. Prior to excavation, the interior fill appeared as a gray, oval- shaped spot. Fragments of furnace slag, ash, and small charcoal fragments were found within the fill. No animal bones and ceramics were found. A significant plant root system was discerned in the pit during excavations. The pit measured 1 meter long, 56 m wide and 20 cm deep. The bottom of the pit, characterized by a dense, loamy soil, was measured at x: 410292.946; y: 4887013.834; at a level of 597.139 m. asl. (Appendix D., pg. 165-figs. 55-58).

      
      

      Locus 016. Ash pit. This flask-shaped pit was located in the southwestern part of Unit 7 at UTM coordinates x: 410290.160; y: 4887014.246; at a level of 597.091 m. asl. Another ash pit (locus 18) was located 3.70 m north of this described pit. A third ash pit (locus 015) was located 2.45 m east of this pit. Prior to excavation, the interior fill appeared as a gray, flask- shaped spot. This pit was rounded on the northern side and extended to the south, becoming rectangular in shape. While clearing the inner fill of the pit, a layer of ash and small fragments of charcoal were detected. No animal bones or ceramics were found in the fill. An extensive root system of plants was found within the fill of the hole.

      
      

      The pit’s diameter at the rounded section measured 40 x 40 cm and extended to a depth of 10 cm. The rectangular section of the pit was 50 cm long and 16 cm wide with the narrow section 16 cm long. The entire length of the pit measured 90 cm. The bottom of the pit was found at UTM coordinates x: 410289.955; y: 4887014.241; at a level of 597.572 m. asl. and was characterized as a dense, loamy soil (Appendix D, pgs. 165-166-figs. 59-62).

      
      

      Locus 017. Trash pit (midden) This trash pit had a rounded shape and was located at the eastern baulk and extended into the baulk of Unit 7 at UTM coordinates x: 410294.611; y: 4887016.800; at a level of 597.053 m. asl. Another midden (locus 018) was located 3.60 m west of the this described pit. Ash pit, locus 013, was located 1.05 m south of the pit along the eastern wall of the unit. Prior to excavation of the pit’s fill, this midden appeared as a gray spot with a circular shape. On the northern side it was circular, and the pit extended to the south and became rectangular in shape. During excavations, the fill revealed a layer of ash and contained small charcoal fragments. No animal bones or ceramics were found within the ash layer of the pit. A plant’s root system was detected to a depth of 20 cmbs.

      
      

      Among the fragments of pottery, animal bones, and glass fragments, a spherical glass paste bead with a diameter of 0.9 cm and a hole with a diameter of 0.3 cm was found. The bead contained a decoration with layers of openwork lines (Serial no. Ib_20_В_7_IV_017_I003; see Appendix E, pg. 184-fig. 42).

      Below the level where the bead was discovered, while clearing the fill of the hole, an iron knife blade fragment was found. The fragment is partially broken off and heavily corroded (Serial no. Ib_20_В_7_IV_017_I001; see Appendix E, pg. 184-fig 43).

      Among the glazed ceramics found one example included a green-glazed oil lamp (Rus. chirag) discovered at a depth of 35 - 40 cmbs in the eastern baulk of the unit within the midden. (Serial no. Ib_20_В_7_IV_017_I002; see Appendix E, pg. 183- fig 41) The lamp was mostly intact with a faceted flat-bottomed reservoir. It had a loop-shaped handle with a diamond- shaped heel, or thumb rest, the top of which is decorated with a stamped floral ornamentation with a possible cruciform shape. The lamp’s reservoir is 4.4 cm tall, and 7.2 cm in diameter. The neck of the reservoir is rounded, with a partially protruding rim. The diameter of the neck is 3.1 cm. The thickness of the reservoir’s wall is 0.4 - 0.5 cm. The loop-shaped handle measures 6 x 5 cm. The diameter of the rounded hole is 1.5 cm. The handle is 1.3 - 1.4 cm thick. The height of the handle measured 6.4 cm. The size of the rhomboid-shaped thumb rest is 3.1 x 3.4 x 0.6-1 cm. The lamp's spout has been lost, but the spot of breakage and the attachment at the reservoir has been preserved. Similar lamps have been found in the layers of 13th and 14th century sites of ancient settlements on the territory of Semirechye (Zhetisu) and southern Kazakhstan. (See Oil Lamps section, pgs. 57- 69).

      The pottery fragments found in the fill of this midden included rims, sidewalls and bases of wheel-thrown and molded vessels. These included a molded thin-walled cooking pot with a moon-shaped nub-handle and arched, vertical molded handles. Wheel-thrown tableware included red-clay and gray-clay water jugs. Finds included 30 rims, 114 sidewalls and 6 bases from various vessels. A soil sample was taken for analysis.

      Part of the trash pit was located outside the unit’s baulk to the east. The bottom of the pit was characterized by a dense, loamy soil with a sandy mix. It was found 63 cmbs at UTM coordinates x: 410294.535; y: 4887016.819; at a level of 596.606 m. asl. (Appendix D, pgs 167-168-figs 63-74).

      Locus 018. Trash pit. (midden). This locus identified a trash pit, oval in shape, which measured 83 x 57 cm and 12 cm deep. It was located near the baulk in the northwestern corner of Unit 7 at UTM coordinates x: 410290.603; y: 4887018.219; at a level of 596.989 m. asl. The midden (locus 017) lay to the east 3.60 m from this described pit. The ash pit (locus 016) was located 1.05 m south of this pit at the southern wall of the unit. Prior to excavation, the midden appeared as a gray, oval-shaped spot. While clearing the inner fill of the pit, a layer of ash and small charcoal fragments were detected. Bovine pelvic bones and small animal bones fragments were also found.

      Two pottery fragments from a partial ring base of a glazed bowl were found in the fill of the pit. The inside of the bowl is covered with a blue glaze. Nearby lay a glazed blue fragment from a thick-walled water-bearing jug. Six sidewall fragments from a wheel-thrown water- bearing vessels were also present. The root system from plants were detected in the hole’s fill. The bottom of the pit came from an even, dense loam at UTM coordinates x: 410290.310; y: 4887018.257; at a level of 596.479 m. asl. (Appendix D, pgs. 168-169-figs 77-82).

      Following final clearing of the various pits in Unit 7, aerial photography of the site was conducted (Appendix D, pgs. 169-170-figs. 84-86).

      3.3 List of Unit 7 Loci

      
      

      Locus 011. Top layers

      
      

      Locus 012. Kayrak (gravestone) Locus 013. Ash pit

      Locus 014. Ash pit Locus 015. Ash pit Locus 016. Ash pit

      Locus 017. Trash pit (midden) Locus 018. Trash pit (midden)

      
      

3. Collection of Samples for Scientific Analysis

   Soil samples were taken while conducting excavations at the Christian necropolis of the Ilibalyk settlement. Samples were taken from Area B, Units 6 and 7. Three soil samples were taken for carpology analysis. The sample collections were conducted in accordance to generally accepted methodological recommendations. Each sample was taken individually and during collection, a clean trowel was used. Each sample was carefully packed and assigned an individual serial number.

   
   

   A sample of burned wood was also taken for the purpose of radiocarbon (C-14) analysis from Area C, Unit 12, next to Locus 232 identified as a large boulder which may have served as a wooden pillar base for the structure. The sample was identified in an area of burning and ash and obtained at a level of 597.300 m. asl. with a clean trowel and stored in aluminum foil. Later the charcoal was processed, and a 1220 mg portion of the sample was taken and submitted to the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Lab at the University of Arizona (USA). Analysis results are still pending as of March 31, 2021.

   Table 1. Carpology Samples

   
   

   No.	Serial No.	Brief Description	Collection Process Photos
   Carpology Sample Collection from Area B, Unit-6
   1.	Ib_20_В_6_IV_00 5_01.	This carpology sample (No. 1) was taken from the soil fill of locus 005 (Pit 1), which was located in the northeastern part of Unit 6 (Area B), one meter from the eastern baulk of the unit. Coordinates in the UTM system (x: 4887024.264, y: 410294.853; 597.561 m. asl.). The sample was taken relative to the level of the topsoil at a depth of 90 cmbs in the northeastern section of Pit 1. The sample contained a light- yellow loose loam with inclusions of fine sand and small particles of charcoal.
   Carpology Sample Collection from Area В, Unit-7
   2.	Ib_20_В_7_IV_01 4_02.	This carpology sample (No. 2) was taken from the soil fill of locus 014 which was located in the eastern part of Unit 7 (Area B), one meter from the eastern baulk of the unit. Coordinates in the UTM system (x: 4887015.309, y: 410293.182; 597.002 m. asl.). The sample was taken relative to the level of the topsoil at a depth of 50 cmbs in the eastern section of the unit. The sample contained a loose, mixed gray loam with inclusions of charcoal particles, and fragments of animal bones.

   3.

   Ib_20_В_7_IV_01 7_03.

   This carpology sample (No. 3) was taken from the soil fill of locus 017 which was located at the eastern baulk of Unit 7 (Area B. Coordinates in the UTM system (x: 4887016.800, y: 410294.611; 597.053 m. asl.). The sample was taken relative to the level of the topsoil at a depth of 60 cmbs in the eastern section of the unit. The sample contained a light-yellow loose, mixed loam with inclusions of ash and ash particles.

   
   

   1. Archaeological Flotation

      
      

      The following section contains a table on the flotation of the carpology samples taken from the site of Area B in Units 6 and 7.

      
      

      During excavations, 3 samples were taken for carpology analysis from the following locations: Area B, Unit 6 (1 sample from locus 005); Area B, Unit 7 (1 sample from locus 014,

      1 sample from locus 017).

      
      

      All samples were bagged with each sample’s collection point shot via the Total Station and assigned measurements in the UTM coordinate system.

      
      

      Each sample was assigned a unique serial number and the collected materials were carefully packed and documented in accordance with the established procedures and regulations.

      
      

      The processing of the carpology samples was carried out in controlled conditions by means of washing them with water and filtering the soil followed by the collection of the resulting sediment. They were then dried at room temperature.

      
      

      The laboratory results for the carpology samples are still pending.

      Table 2. Carpology Samples after Flotation

      
      

      No.	Serial No.	Brief Description	Photos
      Sample 1, Area B, Unit 6
      1.	Ib_20_В_6 _IV_005_0 1.	Sample 1 had a net weight of 4.8 kg prior to flotation. The resulting sediment weighed 415 g. This sample was taken from the soil fill of Pit 1 (locus 005), which was located in the northeastern part, Unit 6 (Area B), at a depth of 90 cmbs. The sediment included large sandy particles of a brown color with charcoal inclusions. The sample contained organic matter in the form plant roots and seeds.
      Sample 2, Area В, Unit 7
      2.	Ib_20_В_7 _IV_014_0 2.	Sample 2 had a net weight of 9.6 kg prior to flotation. The resulting sediment weighed 1240 g. This sample was taken from the soil fill of locus 014, located in the eastern section of Unit 7 (Area B) one meter from the eastern baulk of the unit, at a depth of 50 cmbs. The sediment included large sandy particles of a brown color with charcoal inclusions. The sample contained organic material of plant roots and fragments of animal bones.
      3.	Ib_20_В_7 _IV_017_0 3.	Sample 3 had a net weight of 9.2 kg prior to flotation. The resulting sediment was 930 g. This sample was taken from the soil fill of locus 017, located at the eastern baulk of Unit 7 (Area B) at a depth of 60 cmbs. The sediment included large sandy particles of a brown color with inclusions of charcoal. The sample contained organic material in the form of plant roots and animal bone fragments.

4. Cultural Material Analysis

   1. Analytical Description of Kayraks (Gravestones) Discovered during the 2020 Season

      
      

      Four kayraks (gravestones) were discovered during this 2020 dig season—two in Area C (Loci 213 & 234) and two in Area B (Loci 009 & 012). This now means that a total of 38 gravestones have been found in Field IV at Ilibalyk. One of the stones (Area B, Unit 7, locus 012), had an inscription in Syriac and the translation will be described below. All of the stones were damaged to some extent, again, probably as a result of agricultural plowing during the 20th century. These stones, along with the remainder of the corpus from Ilibalyk, appear to have come from the area, specifically, the streams around the site. One of the stones discovered this season (locus 213) was from what appears to be a piece of fine, white granite, which may indicate a higher status. This stone was found in the vicinity of the structure in Area C, L-212, and specifically in Room 1 of L-230. However, it must be noted that it was found in the topsoil layer that had been previously disturbed during the 2017 excavations, thus this stone is unlikely to be an in situ find. However, if this stone indicates a higher status burial, it is not too far removed from the structure in L-212, thus providing more evidence of what the community considered as sacred space of the structure itself. The stones are numbered according to the order in which they were found.

      
      

      Kayrak 1 (Area C, Unit 12, L-213, Serial no: Ib_20_С_IV_213)

      
      

      
      Fig. 5.1. Kayrak 1 of 2020 expedition

       

      This gravestone with a cross incision was found in the central section of U-12 at the 597.597 m asl level at 27 cmbs. Designated locus 213 the level was taken along with photographs. The stone was a whitish-gray granite, with a reticular amorphous shape, and measured 20 x 11.4 x 7 cm. The cross incision on the stone measured 9 x 9 cm and has flared ends. One characteristic that makes the cross inscription on this stone so unique was the depth of the incision into the stone’s surface which measured 3 mm. No further inscriptions were found on the stone.

      
      

      The entire stone was severely cut and chipped away on every side, probably from plowing, and was likely part of a much larger stone. The location of this kayrak was found 6.20 m north of the southern baulk and 15.5 m west of eastern baulk of Unit 12. Eventually it was

      determined that the stone lay within locus 230 which designated Room 1 of the discovered structure. However, as previously mentioned, due to topsoil removal in 2017, it is probable that this stone was not discovered in situ, yet was possibly in the vicinity of this structure, indicating a burial nearby.

      
      

      Kayrak 2 (Area B, Unit 7, L-012, Serial no.: Ib_20_В_7_IV_003_I001)

      This stone was found in the northeastern corner of Unit 7 in Area B. It was in close proximity to in situ stones discovered in Area B during the 2017 season. It is also near the grave (U-6, L-008) discovered 3.7 meters to the north of the stone. It is unknown if this gravestone is in association with the grave in Unit 6. The stone was near the midden pits also discovered in Unit 7 which indicates occupation in the vicinity of the cemetery.

      
      

      
      Fig. 5.2. Kayrak 2 of 2020 expedition with Syriac inscription

       
      

      This flat, gray stone with a reticular shape contains an incised cross with forked ends (cross forshee design) as well as a written inscription in Syriac. It was found 597.309 m. asl at a depth of 40 cmbs. The Syriac inscription is found in three of the four spaces between the crossbars with the fourth area which contained another inscription missing due to damage, presumably from plowing. Following cleaning, a dark, brown oxide appeared across the surface of the rock.

      This kayrak is the fifth one discovered at Usharal-Ilibalyk with a written inscription. Dr. Mark Dickens, a Syriac, Turkic, and Church of the East scholar translated the stone’s inscription with the assistance of Prof. Peter Zieme, which reads as follows:

      
      

      ]঑ॿܐ[८খ१঒ क़ॲܪ♱ܢܘকड़ঋ] ܕ ܗকड़঒[ १ॿܗ

      “This is [the grave of] Febronria [sic] the teacher.”

      
      

      According to Dr. Dickens, the name, Febronria, appears to be a misspelling or poorly written form of the name “Ferbronia.”1 This latter name appears in the corpus of stones from the Chuy Valley in Kyrgyzstan (see 1890, No.50; 1897, No. 104 from Chwolson). In addition, other stones from the Chuy Valley also have utilized the title for teacher (including the stone that mentions Febronia from the Chuy Valley, see Dickens 2020, 43), which is actually a Sogdian word quštānč and in this case is the feminine version of qušti. It is not known if this word refers to a teacher within the church itself, or if it refers to a teacher in the broader Ilibalyk community, however, given the context and how gravestones from this era seem to identify offices and positions within the church, the former is more likely.2

      
      

      It is probable that the person named on the epitaph of this gravestone is a namesake for the 3rd century female Christian martyr, Febronia, a Latin-based name from which the English and Russian terms for the month of February is derived. Originally, Februus was the Roman god of purification, but the namesake on the stone is undoubtedly named after Febronia, who was martyred under Diocletian at the end of the 3rd century AD. According to the story, she was a nun from Nisibis (demonstrating the Christians from Ilibalyk’s connections with Christianity from the East) who was tortured and executed for refusing to forsake her Christian faith and marry the nephew of the Roman emperor. In addition, according to Bishop Mar Awa Royel of the modern Assyrian Church of the East, she is commemorated in the sanctoral cycle of the church on the 4th Friday of the season of the Apostles (i.e. Pentecost season). In addition, Febronia is still a common name among Assyrian women today.3 Thus, this is the second female name found on the 5 stones discovered at Ilibalyk to date is a namesake for a saint with connections to the Church of the East.4

      
      

      
      

      

      1 Dickens adds, “The stonemason has made the beth ,क़ॳॿܘকड़ঋ look like qoph ( ܩ) and rendered the nun (ܢ) initially as a final nun with the tail (ܢ) but then tried to correct it to a medial nun(ܢ). This makes it look like gamel (ܓ). Finally, for some reason, he has put another rish (ܪ) before (क़ॲ) the final yod-aleph.”

      2 Based on personal email correspondence from Dr. Mark Dickens, Nov. 16, 2020.

      3 Email correspondence via Mark Dickens, Feb. 10, 2021.

      4 See https://www.name-doctor.com/name-febronia-meaning-of-febronia-29143.html. The Shirin stone discovered in 2016 is likely a namesake of the famous 7th Christian Queen from Persia married to Shah Chosroes II.
      
      
      

      
      Fig. 5.3. Kayrak 3 of 2020 expedition

      Kayrak 3 (Area B, Unit 6, L-009, Serial no.: Ib_20_В_6_IV_001_ I001)

      
      

      
      

      This gravestone was discovered in southwestern sector of Unit 6 of Area B and was severely damaged with only half of the stone remaining. It forms a semi-circular shape, due to the damage inflicted probably by plowing, and is flat with a gray tint. As currently preserved, it measures 18.2 x 8.9 x 3.3 cm. In the area that would have been the center of the original stone on one side, two partially visible inscribed crossbars with flared ends can be seen which indicates that the stone at one time had a fully inscribed cross. The visible crossbars measure.

      
      

      This stone was located approximately 1.7 m northwest of the grave in Unit 6, L-008, thus it too, like kayrak 2 mentioned above, could be in association with the grave, but this cannot be definitively determined.
      
      

      
      Fig. 5.4 Kayrak 4 of 2020 expedition

       

      Kayrak 4 (Area C, Border of Units 9C and 12, L-185, Serial no: Ib_20_С_IV_234) This gravestone was discovered during the excavation of locus 185 which lay on the borders of Units 9-C and 12 in the northeast side of the latter unit. Initially, this site was thought to be a possible grave due to the grayish color of the soil and also due to an artifact find of a metal cross in 2019 (see 2019 IB abridged report, pg 77), which was surmised to possibly have been attached to a wooden coffin. The initial hope was to determine the relationship of this locus with the structure as it was being revealed in Unit 12 which may indicate a high-status

      
      

      burial. It lay between 5 to 6 meters from the northern wall of Unit 12, locus 230. The excavation at this location was complicated by a cluster of fruit trees, so care had to be taken not to damage the trees. The soil fill above the stone contained animal bone and pottery, including a large, blue glazed bowl fragment. A significant amount of burning and charcoal flecks was found in the soil This stone was discovered at the 597.703 m. asl layer approximately 40 cmbs with the top side (inscribed side) face down in the soil. No further evidence of a grave was found; however, this may have been obscured by the cluster of trees.

      
      

      The stone is gray in color, with an elongated, oval-shaped and cut so that the lower half is missing. Based on its position and the damage done to it, it was likely moved from its original placement, probably due to agricultural activity. It measures 20.6 x 17.7 cm and is 20 cm wide. The cross inscription which has been chiseled measures 12.5 x 9.3 cm with slightly flared ends and it quite visible and is not equilateral. There are no further inscriptions visible on the stone.

   2. Other Significant Cultural Material Finds Metal lamp and/or censer

      In Unit 12, next to the far eastern (outer) wall (L-239) of the structure revealed within
      
      

      
      Fig. 5.5_ Metal lamp discovered in situ.

       

      the unit, a highly corroded metal lamp or possible censer (ID: Ib_20_С_IV_212_I005) was found. It was located at a level of 597.60 m. asl. (More details concerning the specific dimensions of this find are in Appendix E, fig. 9, pg. 174). Along with the metal disk-shaped pan were accompanying s-shaped chain links made of a bronze/copper alloy. Within the disk- shaped pan, carbon was detected which indicates burning. It is possible that this item was an open-air lamp in which oil was

      ignited, or it could have been a type of incense burner or censer. The photo on the lower right (fig. 5.6) shows a possible reconstruction (not to scale).

      
      

      While speculative, given the current context of the find, this artifact may have been used as a censor for religious purposes. Censers have been used in religious contexts dating back at least 5000 years and used in Christian contexts since at least the 3rd century AD.
      
      

      

      Fig. 5.6 Lamp fragments with clay model reconstruction
      (model by V. Bichkov)

       

      While the simplicity of this find (which may not be complete due to looting that occurred on the night prior to the find by illegal metal

      detectorists) points against this being a ceremonial censer. However, such simple designs have two Central Asian Christian contexts. One was discovered at a church excavation in Azerbaijan at Mingachevir in the 1950s that was dated to the 8th century (Halilov, Н.А., 2018, 224-25,

      Fig. 56-1). The other is from the famous wall painting found at a church site in the Turfan oasis near the Uighur kingdom of Qucho located in the Xingjiang province by the Prussian expedition the early 1900s (Dickens 2020, 190-91, 375;

      Baumer, 2016,176-179). The

      most famous censer found in a Central Asian Christian context is near the Christian site in Urgut, Uzbekistan which may be a

      monastery (see Savchenko 2005, for the view that it is merely a church, see Ashurov, 2013). An almost identical copy of this censer but with no exact provenance was found in either Palestine or Syria dated to the 7th century and now housed in the Princeton University Art Museum (Acc. No. y1943-113).

      
      

      In Greek and Russian Orthodox tradition, a lamp of the type discovered at Ilibalyk is sometimes used as an icon lamp which is placed in front of or near an icon to enhance the image. The use of icons and statues in Church of the East settings has not, however, been fully established (Baumer, 2016, 164-168). Given the open construction of our artifact in question, the interpretation of a lamp or a more stationary incense burner is probably more tenable. Another possibility is this could be what again in Russian and Greek Orthodox settings is called a vigil lamp.

      
      

      
      Fig. 5.8 Wall painting from Christian church in Turfan (northwest China, Xinjiang province) housed in Museum für Asiatische Kunst, Berlin. Circle indicates possible censer.

       

      
      Fig. 5.7 Side view & posterior view of censer (11th cent) from Urgut region found in 1916 (Baumer 2016, 170)

       

      Regardless of this artifact’s exact function (either lamp or censer), its decorative chain and its context being next to the structure in Unit 12 provides a good case for some sort of ceremonial usage in a high-status building.

      
      

   3. Oil Lamps (Chirags) and their Significance (by Charles A. Stewart)

      
      

      Four ceramic oil lamps were discovered underneath the current topsoil within the cemetery complex and near a medieval building. One lamp was mostly intact, except for the missing nozzle and chipped thumb rest, which is designated in this report as “Lamp-1” (fig.5.9 a/b). The three other examples are fragmentary but have a similar morphology and style and, therefore, date to the same time period (figs. 5.10, 5.11, 5.12). As such the characteristics of Lamp-1 can be assumed for the other examples.

      
      

      Lamp-1 was made of clay beige or light-orange in color. It has a nozzle for one wick. The brown, yellow, and green glazes can be characterized as applied in the “splashed” technique. Some areas the glaze is thicker than others, and in some areas the glaze was worn away. The body (oil reservoir) of Lamp-1 was likely made on a potter’s wheel and the handle, thumb rest and nozzle, were later added manually, as well as the fluting on the sides. It has a flat bottom with no foot. In terms of measurements, Lamp-1 is approximately 11 by 7 cm and its wall thickness ranges between 6 to 8 mm thick. The shoulder partly covers the reservoir to prevent spillage, and its rim is slightly raised forming a lipped opening. There is no base. Its thumb rest has a diamond (or leaf-like) shape above the ring handle, and its front is decorated with a stamped fleur-de-lis design, which can be characterized as cruciform in shape.

      
      

      The lamp was found in a rubbish pit (Area B, Unit 7, Locus 017) just south of a burial (one meter south of Unit 6) and 80 m due east of the medieval building (see pg. 168-figs. 69- 72). This is considered part of the cemetery given the fact that gravestones (kayraks) have been found both within and around the area. One hypothesis is that the rubbish pits were placed here long after the cemetery was forgotten, which makes dating problematic. Based on the radiocarbon dates and the readable coins from the site, but from different areas, Lamp-1 is contemporaneous with the cemetery. Therefore, the best explanation is that the lamp was in use for a long time beyond the period when it was made; after a generation the cemetery was abandoned and those who deposited the rubbish were locals who forgot the cemetery or, alternatively, they were later immigrants who moved into the area unaware of the earlier history (see Interment Depths section, pgs. 76-77, for other possible interpretations).

      
      

      Lamp-1’s form and decoration can be dated anywhere to the 12th to 14th century. It conforms to examples found elsewhere in Central Asia, including the decorated thumb rest, faceted body, and angular nozzle. For instance, the lamps discovered at Taraz, Kazakhstan, dated to the 11th to 13th centuries (Baipakov and Kuznecova 2011: 52-58); the Chuy and Fergana Valleys, Kyrgyzstan, 11th to 14th century (Amanbaeva and Kolchenko 2011: 94-95) (fig.); and Khulbuk, Tajikistan, dated from the 11th or 12th century (Jakubov 2011:136, 149) (fig.).

      
      

      In addition to the near whole vessel of Lamp-1, two other lamps (Lamp-2, Lamp-3) possessed thumb rests of almost identical ornamentation. These latter two lamps were found in the vicinity of Area C, Unit-12, Locus 212, which contained the remains of the structure which is currently interpreted as a significant building with a religious or ceremonial function connected to the Christian religion. While each of the thumb-rests varies from the other slightly, they all have the same green glaze, with a floral pattern in the center of a cruciform shape, with three small indentations or dots at the base in a triangular configuration. The fact that each of these lamps were found near the Christian cemetery and two of these lamps in the vicinity of the structure, while Lamp-1 was found in Area B, Unit 7, some 80 meters to the east, their relationship to one another and to the community associated with the Christian

      cemetery seems established. While further investigation is needed, so far, we have yet to find evidence of a thumb rest with this exact design from the published literature of oil lamps from Central Asia that is currently available to us. Our current hypothesis is that this lamp type with this cruciform design on the thumb rest may be unique to the Christian community at Ilibalyk and may have been chosen because of its shape and, thus, expressed their Christian faith (See Fig. 5.13). Similar forms were common in Christian art in western Asia and Europe during the Middle Ages. As discussed below, oil lamps, and specifically the thumb rests, have contained religious iconography in various settings in different regions since antiquity.
      
      

      a.		b.
      Fig. 5.9. Ilibalyk Oil Lamp-1. Glazed terracotta. excavated in 2020. [IB20-В7-IV-017_I002 (inv.no. 41)]: a. top view; b. profile view.

      
      

      1. 
         

         
         Fig. 5.10. Ilibalyk Oil Lamp-2. IB20-C-IV-212-I016 (inv. no. 20). Dimensions: 6.8 x 2 cm to 9.5 x 4.2 cm, and walls are 19.4 mm thick. Found in the middle of the medieval building (Room 1, Locus 230).
         
         
         

         
         Fig. 5.11. Ilibalyk Oil Lamp-3. IB20-С-IV-212-I013 (inv. no. 17). Dimensions: 6.8 x 5.4 cm; walls are 4.4 mm thick.
         
         
         

         
         Fig. 5.12. Ilibalyk Oil Lamp-4. Ib_20_С_IV_212_I003 (inv. No. 7) Dimensions: 4.9 x 33 cm; walls were 1.1 cm thick.
         
         
         

         
         Fig. 5.13 Ilibalyk oil lamps 1-3 with identical thumb rest designs found in Areas B & C
         
         

         There is one known example of lamps found in a Central Asian ecclesiastical context; that of the Christian church and/or monastery found at Urgut, Uzbekistan in the 1990s and excavated between 2004 – 2007 by a team led by Alexei Savchenko, in which they reported a significant number of oil lamp finds, one in particular dating to the 13th century (as described by Ashurov, 2013, 117, f.n. 403, also pg 140 for a photograph).

         
         

         Further analysis of the lamps from the Ilibalyk cemetery complex could provide answers as to the exact source of manufacturer and the clay source used in these lamps’ production. Small details indicate that the two lamps from Area C are probably made very close chronologically; whereas Lamp 1 (from Area B) has some slight stylistic differences which may indicate it was manufactured at a different time period, but whether earlier or later is still unknown.

         
         

         Excursus: History of Oil Lamps in Comparison to Various Central Asian Finds and the Greater Christian Context.

         
         

         During the Late Chalcolithic Period (c. 4000 BC) simple terracotta oil lamps, consisting of an open-top small bowl (reservoir for the oil) with a slight indentation (nozzle for the wick) at the side were developed in the Mediterranean region. These forms quickly spread into Asia, Africa, and Europe along with metallurgical technology into the historical period, and are still used in the world today, as in India. A variety of vegetable oils, butter-oil, and animal grease could be used to fuel these devices.

         
         

         During the Hellenistic Period (323 - 30 BC) oil lamps evolved into a particular form with the body often made on a potter’s wheel. The ancient Greeks improved on the lamp design by elongating the form into a “slipper” or “pear-shape” body, so that the shoulders of the lamp would form a wide rim or completely cover the reservoir, preventing oil from splashing out. Also, this design extended nozzle further away from the holder to prevent the flame from burning the hand. Small lamps could be held in the palm of the hand. Larger lamps required a ring-shaped handle at the opposite end of the nozzle, to provide a stable fulcrum point. The larger the lamp, the bigger the flame—so eventually, larger lamps were provided with “thumb- rests” (fig. 5) above the handle and further extended the nozzle, forming a simple cantilever system, with the holder’s thumb acting as a vertical “buttress” for the anchor (i.e. hand). These rests were large enough to contain simple decorations and figurative art, usually floral or palmette designs. Really large rests are characterized as “reflectors”, particularly in metal lamps, because they can also serve to shield the top of the hand from the flame while projecting and radiating the light outward. Some were covered in slip.

         
         

         During the Roman Imperial period (30 BC – 476 AD) the earlier forms of oil lamps continued to be produced, so that it is difficult to tell apart simple Hellenistic forms from Roman imperial ones. More expensive and elaborate Roman oil lamps were made out of bronze and could rest or hang on long stands. Jews and Syrians used oil lamps that were common to the rest of the eastern Mediterranean, and only differed in the kind of symbols that decorated its surface (fig.6)
         
         

         
         Fig. 5.14. Terracotta Lamp, from the Roman Empire, made from a mold. 1st half of
         1st century A.D. Roman (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Acc. No. 06.1021.286).

         
         

         
         

         
         Fig. 5.15. Oil Lamp with Jewish Symbols (menorah, etrog and lulav), presumably used within a synagogue,
         dating from ca. 350–450 AD. From Egypt, Ceramic (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Acc. No.:

         91.1.1621).

         
         In Judaism oil lamps held particular religious symbolism. The Torah describes how God commanded particular designs to be used as liturgical furnishings within the Temple of Jerusalem. As such, God was the designer of the artistic form from which human artists translated into physical objects (Exodus 25-27). The chief Temple lamp was the seven- branched Menorah that had almond-blossom-shaped cups which held olive oil for fuel. Throughout the scriptures a lamp symbolized wisdom (light) that overcomes ignorance (darkness); for example: “The light of the righteous rejoices, but the lamp of the wicked will be put out” (Proverbs 13:9). Likewise, the visible burning flame can symbolize the invisible spiritual reality: “The spirit of man is the lamp of the Lord, searching all his innermost parts” (Proverbs 20:27). So the depiction of the menorah on the lamp provided here (fig. 6) is not only a symbol of Judaism, but a poetical self-reference and a form of recursion (i.e. lamp within a lamp). After the destruction of the Temple, the local synagogues came to symbolize and commemorate the Temple, while simple synagogue lamps (like fig. 6) came to signify the Menorah, which had been taken to Rome (and later lost) (as depicted on the Arch of Titus, dated to the year 81 AD).

         
         

         In Christianity, the lamp continued to incorporate the same Jewish symbolism, while taking on new meaning with Jesus’ references to lamps. Several of Jesus’ parables and metaphorical sayings utilize lamps as key symbols (Matthew 5:15, 25:1-8; Luke 12:35, 15; John 5:35). For example, Jesus said “The eye is the lamp of the body. So, if your eye is sound, your whole body will be full of light” (Matt. 6:22); likewise, Jesus said this of John the Baptist: “He was a burning and shining lamp, and you were willing to rejoice for a while in his light” (John 5:35). It is not a surprise that some of the earliest Christian iconography are found on oil lamps, such as the Good Shepherd Lamp (fig. 7) signed by the Florentius workshop dated to the third century—that is, prior to the legalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire (Bailey1980:95). The number of lamps from the Late Roman to Medieval periods that are Christian symbols are so numerous that they can be considered everyday inexpensive objects. During the long Byzantine Period (395–1204) there were a variety of Christian lamps made for use both at home and in churches. Those made of bronze are considered more expensive and used in churches; sometimes they are so large that they needed stands. Such lamps were exported throughout the world; for example, a Byzantine lamp was discovered in France (fig. 8) which has a flared-armed cross that serves as “thumb-rest”, but this is so large that it should be considered a reflector too.
         

         
         Fig.5.16. Oil Lamp with the image of Christ as the Good Shepherd, Noah’s Ark, and the Story of Jonah. Early 3rd century AD. Rome. Made by the Florentius Workshop in Rome (Bode-Museum, Berlin, Inv. No.

         2345).

         
         Fig. 5.17. Oil Lamp with Large Reflector in shape of a Cross, made in Asia Minor, perhaps at Constantinople, 5th-6th c (Byzantine Period). Discovered in near Brienne-le-Château (France). Musée Vivant

         Denon (Acc. no. 91.7.1)

         
         

         With the rise of Islam, traditional Roman and Byzantine forms of lamps were adopted by Arab settlers around the Eastern Mediterranean and adapted to Muslim culture. During the seventh century, Islam assimilated Egyptian technology and handicrafts. This is important for the history of oil lamps. The ancient Egyptians had a long tradition of using faience to cover ceramics, so it is possible that oil lamps were first glazed in Egypt during the Roman Period (as claimed for a piece in the Milwaukee Public Museum) (fig. 9). While the form with the palmette thumb-rest appears Roman, its glazing is uncharacteristic of Roman-period lamps; therefore, I suggest the Milwaukee example (fig. 9) one is actually a much later Islamic piece dating from around the tenth to eleventh centuries—as such, it illustrates how Muslims were directly copying earlier Greek and Roman examples and these would influence the forms exported into Central Asia where they began to be manufactured.
         
         

         
         Fig. 5.18. Glazed mold-made lamp from Egypt (Milwaukee Public Museum, Inv. No. N14783/20760).

         An important development took place in Fatimid Egypt (909-1171) with the popularity of glazing lamps (Fig. 10). It seems that the well-known Misr al-Fustat ceramic factory was the first location where lamps were glazed (Mason 1995; Mason and Tugwell 2011). Characteristically, Fatimid oil lamps had extended nozzles and tended to look more angular compared to earlier Byzantine and Roman lamps. From Egypt the popularity of glazed lamps spread to manufacturing Syrian centers, such as Damascus (1100-1600) and Raqqa (1150- 1300), and into Central Asia, such as Nishapur and Tabriz, Iran.

         
         

         

         
         Fig. 5.19. Fatimid Dynasty Glazed Ceramic Lamp 10th to 11th century. British Museum (No. OA+.1953)

         
         

         Our knowledge of ceramic workshops in Central Asia is limited. A few kilns have been discovered that revealed that flourishing production centers in Tajikistan (Khulbuk and Penjikent), Uzbekistan (Taskent, Kuva, and Akhsiket), and Koshoy Korgon (Kyrgyzstan). Presumably, because of the several cities along the Chuy River (Kyrgyzstan), we can be sure that ceramics were produced here to accommodate the urban population. We can assume that this western Asian technology, of making glazed ceramics and its associated artistic forms, were introduced to the area with the spread of trade networks and the flourishing of Islamic states; with that said, we cannot ignore the sophisticated Far Eastern ceramic centers of what is modern China, particularly the green-and-orange glaze aesthetic that was popularized in the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907) (Vainker 1991).

         
         

         One form of oil lamp which was common in Central Asia had a decorated thumb-rest. The shape of the thumb-rest varied—square, triangular, diamond, palmette, and leaf—with the leaf being the most common. The fronts of the thumb-rests were decorated with a variety of abstracted vegetal, zoomorphic, and floral designs (fig.11). These were first introduced into Persian workshops, such as Nishapur and spread eastward, as exemplified by the lamp from Penjikent dated to the 10th century (fig. 12), which is comparable to Lamp-1 found at Ilibalyk (Kazakhstan) (fig. 1); however, Lamp-1 is much later in date since it has the fluted body. These were ultimately inspired by the forms introduced into Persia Greek and Roman forms that appeared one-thousand years earlier; what is unique for these Central Asian examples are the

         variety of rich green glazes that signify medieval aesthetic. The nozzles tend to be long and angular. The “fluted” (or “faceted”) type (figs. 13, 14) of oil lamp was quite popular in Central Asia dating from the 11th century into the 14th century. The fluting around the reservoir body resembles a Greek or Roman column.

         
         

         
         Fig. 5.20. Thumb-rests from oil lamps, discovered at Taraz (Kazakhstan), 11th to 12th centuries (from Baipakov and Kuznecova 2011, pg. 53).
         
         
         

         
         Fig. 5.21. Lamp; loop-handle and carved leaf-shaped thumb-piece; spout missing. Made of carved and green glazed (semi-opaque) pottery (reddish). L: 13.5 cm (British Museum, Acc. No. 1979,1227.1). 10th – 11th century from Penjikent (Tajikistan)

         
         

         
         Fig. 5.22. Ceramic Oil Lamp of the 11th or 12th century Khulbuk, Tajikistan (Jakubov 2011:149, fig. XIV).
         
         

         
         Fig. 5.23. Glazed oil lamps. XII - early XIII centuries from Osh (southeast Fergana), Kyrgyzstan Ceramic Oil Lamps of the 12th to 13th centuries southern Kyrgyz (Amanbaeva and Kolchenko 2011:124,

         fig. XXVIII).

         
         

         Christian Lamp Symbolism

         
         

         Early Christian writers continued to use lamps to symbolize spiritual ideas. For example there is a well-known 4th-century hymn by the Christian poet Prudentius called the Hymn for the Lighting of the Lamps (Hymnus Ad Incensum Lucernae). Here is an extract of four verses from the 40 surviving verses:

         Blest Lord, Creator of the glowing light,

         At Whose behest the hours successive move, The sun has set: black darkness broods above:

         Christ! light Thy faithful through the coming night.

         
         

         From lamps that brim with rich and fragrant oil, Or torches dry this heaven-sent fire we feed;

         Or make us rushlights from the flowering reed And wax, whereon the bees have spent their toil.

         
         

         From pendent chains the lamps of crystal blaze; By fragrant oil sustained the clear flame glows With strength undimmed, through darkness throws High o'er the fretted roof a golden haze…

         
         

         Thou art the Light indeed; on our dull eyes And on our inmost souls Thy rays are poured;

         To Thee we light our lamps: receive them, Lord, Filled with the oil of peace and sacrifice.

         Inventor rutili, dux bone, luminis, qui certis vicibus tempora dividis, merso sole chaos ingruit horridum, lucem redde tuis Christe fidelibus.

         
         

         Pinguis quos olei rore madentibus lychnis aut facibus pascimus aridis: quin et fila favis scirpea floreis presso melle prius conlita fingimus.

         
         

         Pendent mobilibus lumina funibus, quae suffixa micant per laquearia, et de languidulis fota natatibus lucem perspicuo flamma iacit vitro.

         
         

         Tu lux vera oculis, lux quoque sensibus, intus tu speculum, tu speculum foris, lumen, quod famulans offero, suscipe, tinctum pacifici chrismatis unguin.

         
         

         Prudentius here often compares the largest light, the Sun, with the small lamps held in the hand; likewise, Christ is like the Sun, while his followers are lamps. These ideas stem from the book of Revelations (22:5): “They will not need the light of a lamp or the light of the sun, for the Lord God will give them light.”

         
         

         Similar symbolism of light and the lamp are common in Syriac literature. For example, Ephrem the Syrian often uses the phrase “Lamp of Truth” which continues the Hebrew and New Testament relationship between light as a symbol of wisdom. This understanding is also embodied in the Bar Hebraeus’ theological work, written in Syriac, titled The Lamp of the Sanctuary (Menarath Qudhshe) from the 13th century. Today, in some Syriac liturgical celebrations, such as Naheere, all participants hold lamps or candles as integral to worship as prayers and hymns.

         
         

         Ironically, by the tenth century, when Muslims had appropriated the ceramic glazing technologies of the former Roman Empire, Europeans had abandoned the use of hand-held ceramic and bronze lamps, favoring the use of candles (which were also first invented by the Romans). In Europe oil lamps were still used for larger stationary lighting, usually contained in simple hanging pots; however, the more luxurious examples were made of glass.

   4. High Status Fine Ware

      
      

      In addition to the oil lamps referred to above, Unit 12 possessed a significant amount of what can be considered fine ware pottery. In our context, we are defining fine ware as glazed vessels both import and probable domestic types as well as decorative glassware.

      
      

      In general, initial glazed pottery influences usually appear to come from the periphery of Central Asia, particularly locations such as Persia and China. Certainly, however, the technology, by the late medieval period was prevalent throughout the Mongolian empire, although the Mongol period is not considered a high point in pottery manufacture during the Yuan dynasty of China or in Iran.

      
      

      While glazed ceramics and glassware found in Unit 12 are noted, conclusions made concerning them can only be preliminary and general. Certainly, with the aid of previous radiocarbon analysis from samples taken at Ilibalyk (which places the finds within the cemetery solidly in the late 13th and early 14 centuries) as well as in comparison with known pottery forms of the region, the pottery discovered dates between the 12th through 14th centuries. This is also in general agreement with the numismatic data.

      
      

      From a general perspective of excavations at Ilibalyk, Unit 12 provided an abundance of pottery finds (more than 4,500 potsherds), particularly in comparison with the finds from the cemetery which lay to the north. This suggests not just occupation, but rather a specific type of occupation. Not common domestic life, but something of a different type. Our contention is this is what we would call “sacred” or “religious” space. This is demonstrated in three ways: colored glazed pottery, very fine celadon vessels, and a key glass shard with decorative painting.

      
      

      Glazed pottery

      
      

      Glazed pottery fragments are commonly found in late medieval settings around Europe and Asia. Yet, they are not in the same category as common ware. Not only do they represent a vessel of high value, but they are helpfully diagnostic. The glazed pottery discovered so far at Ilibalyk is found in dark-green, blue, light-blue, brown, and black. The 2016 excavations revealed a significant amount within the radbad and shahristan areas, which is expected of these locations of domestic occupation. Within the Christian cemetery, glazed pottery finds have proven significantly less frequent, especially glazed ware. The ceramic finds in the cemetery have been either small fragments possibly used in the temper of mudbrick (usually from common ware sherds); cooking vessel fragments often found in association with ash pits which may suggest funerary meals; or sherds deliberately placed with the body at the time of interment with some of these being glazed potsherds. No whole or partially whole vessels have ever been found in cemetery to date.

      
      

      Within Unit 12 of Area C, the number of glazed pottery sherds increased, yet were still only 1.3% percent of the total number of potsherds found. In addition, among the finds in Unit 12, large pieces and fragments were able to be fit together since they were from the same vessel (see Appendix E, pg. 172-fig. 3 Ib_20_C_IV_230_I002; 180-fig. 31, Ib_20_C_IV_185_I002,). Finally, a possible ceramic candlestick capital was also discovered near the floor level of L- 230 (Room 1) of the structure in Unit 12. This dark green glazed fragment which still

      maintained is lustrous sheen indicates possible ceremonial use. (serial no. Ib_20_C_IV_230_I001, see pg. 179-fig. 30).

      
      

      Celadon ware

      
      

      The extremely fine fabric with no inclusions with the accompanying fine glaze and decorative craftwork on the 3 fragments of celadon (probably from the same vessel) found within the structure of Unit 12 (see Appendix E, Ib_20_C_IV_212_I001, I010, I015; pgs. 173- fig.5; 175-fig. 14; 177-fig. 19).

      
      

      
      Fig. 5.24. Three pottery fragments of a fine celadon bowl with floral designs found in Unit 12 and probably from the same vessel.

      
      

      Glass fragment

      
      

      Perhaps one of the most significant cultural material finds of the 2020 season is the pictured glass fragment (see Fig. 5.25 below). This shard discovered within the confines of Unit 12, near Locus 230 (Room 1 of the identified structure), displays tremendous craftmanship, with probably gold-leaf paint with other pigments of brown, blue and red. A series of fleur-de-leis are found etched into the glass along the upper edge with a series of raised beads below a painted ledge. A blue rosette with a raised bead in the center is in the lower left quadrant of this small 2.2 x 1.6 x 0.2 cm fragment. Given our known context of being located near the Christian cemetery, this floral design’s apparent cruciform shape is of note.

      
      

      
      Fig. 5.25. Painted glass shard of with ornamentation, possible Middle Eastern origin.

       Again, while expert analysis is needed for a definitive identification, painted glass vessels are known to have come via the Crimea and Eastern Europe into the Mongolian empire via the Volga Bulgars, at least in Golden Horde contexts. Valiylina has pointed out that most gold painted glass vessels during this period seem to have originated from Egypt and Syria while glass painted vessels from Iran were fewer in number. (Valiylina 2015, 261.)

      
      

5. Preliminary Interpretation on Architectural Structure in U-12 (Area C)

Summary of Structural Layout

As this field excavation report indicates, a significant structure measuring 21 x 8.7 meters with a west-to-east orientation was discovered south of the cemetery contained within the designated Unit 12 (33 E/W x 20 N/S). It consisted for three rooms and a possible open-air courtyard to the north (identified as Block 1 in Fig. 4, Appendix A), though the courtyard identification is still indeterminate.

Room 1 (Locus 230) was located in the western part of the building and occupied a majority of the structure. The dimensions of the room were 11.6 x 6 meters. Inside the room, along the northern and southern sides at the base of the walls, ledges made of adobe bricks were identified. The ledges were 60 cm wide and 40 cm high. On the ledges 5 flat stones – 3 on the northern ledge and 2 on the southern ledge – were found. The stones were arranged parallel from one another, though not exactly symmetrical and may have served as supports for wooden columns.

In the southeastern and northeastern parts of the room, the walls appeared to possibly have a 50 cm outward indentation, 4 meters in the length. These indentations were possibly niches which were identified due to a thick layer of clay plaster seen on the inner side of the northern niche, thus indicating that this feature was visible to the room’s original occupants. It should be noted that the possible southern niche was less defined, and difficult to discern.

Excavators found a 2.5. meter gap in the center of the southern wall, indicating a possible southern entrance to the premises.

A significant amount of charcoal was found within the soil fill and on the floor of the room, particularly in the room’s center. Three spots of calcined clay were also revealed which indicates the locations of intense burning. The floor level of the room was deepened by 60 cm relative to the level of the probable occupational surface, indicating that a sunken floor was made at the time of building’s original construction.

Room 2 was located to the east of Room 1. This room was elevated by 60 cm above the floor of Room 1. These rooms appear to have been separated by a partition measuring 2.1 x 0.3 meters made of mudbrick blocks and located exactly in the center of the western edge of Room

1. The room itself measured 5.9 x 1.6 m. The northern wall of this room has not survived and perhaps there was an entrance at this side as indicated by the cluster of fired bricks found just outside this location (Locus 218). The floor level in Room 2 appeared to correspond to the level of the medieval occupational surface. This narrow room may have served as a corridor, although further investigation will be needed to determine this hypothesis, or if it had a different function, such as a bema or altar area.

   
   

   Room 3 designated the eastern part of the building. The northern wall has survived only in the northwestern part as seen in the traces of plaster. The western and eastern walls of the room are different from the rest of the walls of the building as they are made in the form of tamped earth fill (paksa in Russian). The remainder of the walls were made of adobe blocks. There was a tandoor (oven/furnace, locus 220) found at the eastern wall of Room 3. The dimensions of the room were 4.5 (E/W) x 7.4 (N/S) m and it was elongated in a north-south direction.

   
   

   As mentioned above, to the north and outside of Room 1 (designated Block 1 in Fig. 4, Appendix A) the structure adjoined to an area made of tamped gray soil interspersed with charcoal. It was not possible to discern the full configuration of this area, but the current presumption is that it represented two rectangular sections connected by a corridor. On the perimeter of this site, traces of plaster and accompanying adobe blocks were found in various locations. In the southeastern part of the site, in the corner, 4 square-shaped fired bricks were revealed, which, as mentioned above, could possibly be the remains of an entrance to Room 2.

   
   

   To the south of Room 1, opposite the supposed entrance, remains of mudbrick masonry were found which formed an area 1 meter wide, elongated in the north-south direction (Locus 253). There is an assumption that this site could be a pedestrian pavement leading to the entrance. This is due to the fact that this “path” is not exactly perpendicular to the outer southern wall of the structure. Further excavation will be necessary to determine if this feature is a wall from a later or previous phase, or if it truly is a pathway leading to an entrance.

   
   

   Because our excavation season was limited in terms of time and the area excavated, we are refraining from making a specific identification of this building’s purpose or function. However, certain indicators and contextual evidence allow us to associate this structure with a religious function, specifically in connection with the Christian cemetery and, thus, hypothetically it would have served the Christian community of Ilibalyk. We base these inferences on the following characteristics of the site:

   
   

   1. Association with the cemetery.

      Based on the finds of the previous two seasons, all the burials in Area C and now the one found in Area B allow us to definitively say that these burials in this cemetery are from those who identified with Christianity. This is proven by the fact that all the accompanying gravestones (38 in total) have Christian iconography and five of these have inscriptions which indicate their religious affiliation due to the names found on the gravestones themselves. The structure is located less than four meters from the nearest adult graves found to date (Area C, Unit 3), and one infant grave (Area C, Unit 12, Locus 216) is located in what could be considered the territory of the structure itself. It would be highly unlikely that the building we have described with its size did not service the cemetery in some way, especially since many ancient and medieval cultures in Central Asia had customs of separating themselves from the dead—particularly, if the cemetery belonged to another religious community. The ground level, upon which the building’s foundations stood, indicates that it is contemporary with the cemetery and if this is a correct hypothesis, then our previous radiocarbon dates from the cemetery during the 2019 excavations place the structure’s final period not long after the interments in Unit 7A-D which are dated to the latter half of the 13th or first half of the 14th centuries. The associated ceramic oil lamps found therein, along with the west-to-east orientation of the grave in Area B, also indicates there was a relationship between the cemetery and the structure itself. This should be further corroborated with our pending C-14 analysis of a sample found within Room 1 (Locus 230).

      
      

   2. Not domestic space

      
      

      The structure in Unit 12 is clearly not a domicile. While butchered animal bones were found in the upper soil layers of the excavation, several characteristics of the typical medieval house were not found, such as sufas (benches for sitting), cooking hearths, and large buried storage pithoi (food storage) were not found. The two furnace features (L-214 & L-220) that were discovered had no accompanying industrial slag or by-products, but rather can be assumed to have been used for heating the large space needed for cold winters characteristic of this climate zone. The walls were approximately 80 cm to one meter thick; given the tensile strength of local mudbrick is around 1.8 MPa, the building here could have supported walls that were as tall as seven meters. Moreover, within the interior there are “pillar stones” that are placed parallel to each along the northern and southern walls; these most likely served as bases for wood posts. Because such posts were structurally unnecessary for a building of this size, they were most likely decorative, conveying a basilical-type aesthetic.

      
      

   3. Ecclesiastical markers

      
      

      One uniform feature of all church buildings from late antiquity and throughout the medieval period is the west-to-east direction inherent in the design, from which the very term “orientation” is derived. Just as the graves of the Ilibalyk cemetery have a west-to-east orientation, so the building construction found in Unit 12 corresponds the positioning of the tombs’ constructions. All the church buildings found to date in Central Asia have this same west-to-east orientation (Baumer 2016, 170-174). In addition, other examples of Church of the East buildings usually had their entrance placed at the southern wall just as we find here.

      
      

      That said, the size of the structure in Unit 12 (8.7 x 23 m) is significantly smaller than the other known churches found in Central Asia such as the two discovered in Ak-Beshim (ancient Suyab) in Kyrgyzstan. For example, Building IV excavated by a Russian team in 1953-

      1954 measured approximately 35.6 m by 14.8 m; whereas Church A (of Area VIII), which was excavated by a German and Ukrainian team in the 1990s measured approximately 38 m by 16

      m. The monastic church excavated at Urgut, Uzbekistan, measured 22.23 m by 35 m, which includes the ancillary rooms, such as the refectory and kitchen. The structure, identified as a church, in modern Turkestan (Kharoba-Koshuk) and associated with ancient Merv, was 13 x 51 m (Ashurov 2013, 118-120, 127).5 Therefore, this may indicate that the building in Unit 12 is not a church, but served some other ecclesiastic function.

      
      

      For example, one possible interpretation is that is served as a funerary chapel, meant to provide prayer services for the deceased prior to burial. Not only are funerary chapels known in western Christendom, but such chapels are referred to in Church of the East liturgical documents, including a tenth-century service book from Turfan, China, written in the Syriac language, which was recently translated into English (Hunter 2017). This funerary rite included instructions regarding which scriptures and prayers (known as qale in Syriac, see Hunter 2017, 20-21) depending on where the body was stationed during the funeral procession—whether at home, near the gate of the city, in the funerary chapel, or in the tomb. There were different services for laity and clergy. The final station prior to taking the body to the grave itself was a funerary chapel (known as beth sluth in Syriac); at that point, the qala was sung, including prayers and readings from the Book of Psalms, before the body was then taken to the grave.

      
      

      Thus, given the location and size of the structure in Unit 12, it is possible that this building served as a funerary chapel located just south of the cemetery. Further excavations, however, will be necessary to determine if this is an accurate hypothesis. It could be that the structure is one of several in the vicinity, or that we have only revealed the eastern half of a much larger building. More investigations to the west and south are required to determine if this structure is independent of any others in that location.

      
      

      Certainly, the cultural material, particularly the high-status pottery finds in and around the structure and the possible lamp or censer, provide further indications of a structure with a religious function. While all types of courseware ceramics were also found, the high-status glazed ware and the glass shard referred to above (see pgs 70-72) sets this area apart from the cemetery. If the oil lamps with the cruciform iconography are potentially religious symbols, then this too, provides credence to the idea that this building served a religious function.

      
      

      

      5 The Area VIII churches at Ak-Beshim altogether had four bemas (sanctuaries) which shared common walls. Unfortunately, the site’s excavation was not completed. Nevertheless, it can be interpreted as four separate churches or as one large church with separate bemas with four separate altars (see the summary provided by Kolchenko 2018 57-70). The Urgut church has also been interpreted as a possible monastery; however, N. Ashurov is unconvinced, but rather interprets as a church built under the patronage of a local Sogdian ruler, (2013, 132-138).

   4. Possible destruction by fire

Fig 6.1. Ground Penetrating Radar scan with overlay of ariel top plan of Unit 12, (L-230) indicating high magnetism (circled area) in the center of Room 1.

The structure appears to have been destroyed by fire and never rebuilt. As the report indicates, charcoal and ash were found along with calcined soil, particularly in the main building (Room 1, L-230) Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) data from 2017 done in this exact area also appears to provide indication of burning in this same location. GPR, in some cases, has the ability to discern areas of burning and as our data indicates (see fig. 6.1) readings show high magnetic activity which is further indication of a significant

conflagration (for other examples, see Conyers 2016, 7). It is from this area that the radiocarbon sample was taken at the edge of Locus 232. The cause of the building’s final destruction is, of course, unknown. If considered in the context of the textual history of the region, persecution of Christians in the first half of the 14th century in nearby Almalyk involving a known Franciscan mission outpost by the newly converted Mongolian Islamic regime of the 1340s could be a possible link (Gilman 1999, 247; Dickens 2020, 39-40). Much more evidence would be necessary, however, to prove this hypothesis.

Given the context of this structure being located next to a proven Christian cemetery with Church of the East affiliation with the above factors, our current interpretation is that this building could have been used as either a small church or funerary chapel, serving the Christian community of Ilibalyk during the 13th and 14th centuries, and that it was eventually destroyed by fire.

7. Clarification of Interment Depths and Extent of Cemetery

During the 2020 season excavation our team tried to assess the original ground surface that was occupied by the cemetery and surrounding buildings. This issue has always been in the backdrop of our research questions because the area rests on a floodplain near a large stream. The extensive agricultural activity over the past century has complicated that matter. Had a large amount of soil been deposited on the site, particularly the designated Field IV over the centuries? If so, was that soil removed because of agricultural work or erosion during the first half of the 20th century? Answering these questions would shed light on the actual depths of interment for the bodies in the cemetery and could potentially confirm or refute whether the mudbrick constructions lining and covering the graves had been exposed above the surface to some extent or concealed below the surface.

The discovery of the structure in Unit 12 now has enabled us to provide an estimate for the approximate occupational surface level since we have apparently found the lowest course of mudbrick for this structure. If this hypothesis continues to hold, then based on our total station measurements, this surface was probably between 597.680 to 597.800 m. above sea level. Of course, this does not take into account the natural undulation of the terrain; the initial

topographical survey of Area C (as established in 2017) demonstrated that this site had a steady east/west rise along a ridge that proceeds in a north/south direction. In other words, the cemetery may lie on the highest rise of the terrain and could have been chosen as a burial site for that very reason.

This variance is demonstrated by an analysis of the grave depths from the past 3 seasons. The shallowest grave discovered to date is that of an infant in Area C, Unit 5, Locus 006, which measured at a depth of 597.899 m. above sea level (asl). This is actually 10 cm higher than our estimated occupational surface level, however, this grave does rest at one of the highest locations of the terrain of Area C which measured between 297.9 to 298 m. asl prior to excavation, which indicates where the current modern surface level is located. On average, the children’s graves measured 597.250 m. asl. or approximately 43.5 cm below the currently estimated occupational surface. The adult graves measured at an average depth of 596.975 m. asl., or approximately 71 cm below the estimated occupational surface.

If our current estimation is correct, then it appears that the graves were not at exceptional depths below the surface, but rather involved the digging of a shallow pit (especially for children) followed by covering the grave with mud brick (though not in every instance) and then piling a mound of dirt on top of that. In comparison, the depths of interment of the Christian graves excavated by Nicholas Pantusov in modern-day Kyrgyzstan at Burana (ancient Balasagun) in the 1880s were estimated to be deeper— with children’s graves found at a depth of 0.7 – 1.15 meters below the original surface whereas adult burials ranged from

1.6 to 2 meters below the surface. From the Christian cemetery at Kara-Jigach, near today’s Bishkek, some of Pantusov’s drawings of the graves show mounds of soil over mud and fired brick coverings (Kolchenko 2018, 73). It should also be noted that the deepest grave found so far at Ilibalyk (Area C, Unit 9C, Locus 211) was possibly as low as 1.3 meters below the estimated occupational level. However, we now can hypothesize that the graves in the cemetery were clearly visible as small mounds on the surface and it is likely that they were easily visible for centuries

following internment. This interpretation explains why the graves were left undisturbed and why the area was not occupied by later buildings.

Fig. 7.1. Sketch of graves 39 and 42 at Kara-Jigach near Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan from N. Pantusov’s excavations of 1886 (Kolchenko 2108, 73).

This then brings into question the original interpretation of excavations in Area B from 2017. In that season, gravestones were found below the surface, but without initially discovering any accompanying graves. Rather, evidence of both domestic and industrial occupation caused our archeologists to believe that this occupation came at a later period and not contemporary with the gravestones and that, in fact, the gravestones might have been moved. The discovery of remains in Area B, Unit 6, Locus 008 has forced us to revise this interpretation. Not only was this adult (possible female) body found in very close proximity to the gravestones discovered in 2017, also it was located next to a nearby rubbish pit which contained an oil lamp with the same style and type as at least two other (possibly three) oil lamps found in Unit 12. It is possible that this lamp from Unit 7, Locus 017 in Area B had been kept for several decades after its original manufacture date and then discarded by the later occupants who may have intended to desecrate the cemetery by placing their garbage over the site; however, there are better hypotheses. For instance, it seems more likely that the lamp was

used contemporaneously with the cemetery; after the lamp had broken, it was later discarded and eventually it was redeposited within a rubbish pit many generations later, when the cemetery was overgrown with vegetation and forgotten. If this second hypothesis is correct, then that would indicate that the cemetery was not far from public or domestic buildings— which goes far in explaining why there are so many sherds of household wares and manufacturing slag uncovered in the soil above the graves. While further investigations will continue, at the moment, our “working hypothesis” is that the Christian cemetery at Ilibalyk was close by, and contemporary with, domestic and industrial centers in Area B, and as well as with the ecclesiastical structure discovered in Area C, Unit 12.

Finally, the burial discovered in Area B this season now strengthens our estimation concerning the eastern boundary of the cemetery and extends the size and area by an additional 80 meters to the east of Area C. This means that a reasonable estimate for the total area of the graveyard could be at large as 4200 m2. If the current estimate of 0.14 burials per square meter of soil is consistent throughout the cemetery then the total number of burials could exceed 500. Only further excavations can verify this estimate.

Conclusion

While the limitations of the worldwide Covid-19 pandemic certainly impacted our team in 2020 and shortened the length of time spent in the field, many of the objectives set for this season were met and even exceeded. The discovery of a structure with a probable ecclesiastical function immediately south of the burials in the medieval Christian cemetery of Usharal- Ilibalyk is highly significant. The discovery of additional gravestones and a burial further east in Area B expand the boundaries of the cemetery significantly and demonstrates that a rather large community of Christians inhabited this city along the northern trade route of the Mongolian Empire, specifically, later during the period of the Chagatai Khanate. These Christians clearly spoke Turkic and utilized the Syriac language. They knew the history of the Church (probably transmitted through their liturgies) as further evidenced by the latest kayrak found in Area B, Unit 7; it mentions “Febronria the Teacher” (who was named after the famous Syriac martyr who died in the city of Nisibis around the year 304), demonstrating also that local women held offices within the church and were valued for transmitting their religious heritage. Moreover, ceramic and radiocarbon evidence is providing a clear chronology that this community lived between the 12th and 14th centuries and flourished in the latter half of the 13th to the beginning of the 14th century.

The artifacts indicate that human occupation areas (as found in Area B) were contemporary with the graves in the cemetery. This raises questions as to how the inhabitants treated burial and sacred space and their interaction within these spaces in their daily lives. Also, whether this site had monastic connections is still an open question. Both the discovery of high-status grave goods in some burials within the cemetery (particularly L-089 in Area C in 2019) as well as the finewares found in and around the structure of Unit 12 demonstrates that some members of this community had wealth and/or high standing within the wider society. In other words, at least some in the community had enough means to purchase imported goods, indicating that they may have had social influence during this period under examination.

Of course, additional excavation in the vicinity of the structure of Unit 12 can help us determine more thoroughly about its purpose. Was it a small church or funerary chapel? Were there other structures in association with it, forming an ecclesiastic complex? Future excavations will also shed more light on the connection of this community with the larger Ilibalyk population. In other words, were the Christians of the city outliers or were they

integrated into the larger society? Were they in positions of influence, or a persecuted (or ignored) minority?

Evidence of the structure’s destruction by fire also raises intriguing possibilities of this community’s decline. Were they connected to the events of the 1330s and 1340s that roiled the Chagatai region connected both to the internecine conflict as well as the general conversion of Mongol rulers to a militant and intolerant form of Islam at this time? Did plague, which also hit the region in 1337 and 1338, impact the residents as well? It is hoped that our expedition’s DNA and radiocarbon samples from the past three seasons can eventually provide more clues to answer these questions which scholars, historians and archaeologists are currently asking concerning the Christians of Central Asia during the Middle Ages.

APPENDIX A: ILLUSTRATIONS AND TOP PLANS

Fig. 1. Schematic of the location of the excavations on the territory of the necropolis of the settlement of Ilibalyk

Fig. 2. Photo top plan of Unit 12. Substrate - orthomosaic.

Fig. 3. Top plan drawing of the Unit 12.

Fig. 4. Photo Top plan Unit 12. Sectional breakdown (Blocks 1-3).

Fig. 5. Top plan photo Unit 12. Block 1.

Fig. 6. Top plan drawing Unit 12. Block 1.

Fig. 7. Top plan photo Unit 12. Block 2.

Fig. 8. Top plan drawing Unit 12. Block 2.

Fig. 9 Top plan photo Unit 12. Block 3.

Fig. 10. Top Plan drawing Unit 12. Block 3.

Fig. 11. Top plan Unit 12 loci elevation measurements.

Fig. 12. Top plan Unit 12. Location of key finds.

Fig. 13. Top plan Unit 12. Sectional layouts.

Fig. 14. Cross section 1-1. Block No. 1.

Fig. 15. Cross section 1-1. Block No. 2.

Fig.16. Cross section 1-1. Block No. 3.

Fig. 17. Cross section 2-2. Block No. 1.

Fig. 18. Cross section 2-2. Block No. 2.

Fig. 19. Cross section 2-2. Block No. 3.

Fig. 20. Unit 6, 7 (Area B). Aerial ortho-mosaic.

Fig. 21. Units 6, 7 (Area B) top plan

Fig. 22. Units 6, 7 (Area B). Loci elevation measurements.

Fig. 23. Unit 6 (Area B) top plan. Burial (Locus 008).

Fig. 24. Schematic of stratigraphic profiles. Unit 6 (Area B).

Fig. 25. Unit 6 (Area B) stratigraphic profile A (East baulk). Block 1.

Fig. 26. Unit 6 (Area B) stratigraphic profile A (East baulk). Block 2.

Fig. 27. Unit 6 (Area B, Locus 005) stratigraphic profile B (East baulk).

APPENDIX B: PHOTOGRAPHS OF AREA C, UNIT 12 AND ACCOMPANYING CULTURAL MATERIAL

APPENDIX C: PHOTOGRAPHS OF AREA B, UNIT 6 AND ACCOMPANYING CULTURAL MATERIAL
























APPENDIX D. PHOTOGRAPHS OF AREA B, UNIT 7 AND ACCOMPANYING CULTURAL MATERIAL

APPENDIX E: DIAGNOSTIC ARTIFACT COLLECTION DESCRIPTIONS

APPENDIX F. FIELD FORENSIC ANALYSIS

To date, the Usharal-Ilibalyk excavations have now revealed 83 graves (33 adults, 50 juveniles). As excavations proceeded during the 2020 season, the expectation was that more graves would be found in U-12, Area C. Instead, evidence of a building was revealed with only one set of human remains discovered outside the architectural features just to the south of U-3 in Area C within the northeast boundary of U-12. This grave was a very small smattering of human remains from an infant, possibly stillborn without even a discernable grave pit. However, as the dig plan indicated, we also sought to determine if the cemetery extended eastward. In addition to the aforementioned grave, another burial was revealed in 2020. The other remains, those of a probable adult female, were found in Area B, U-6 in close association with two kayraks (gravestones). The grave in Area B provides evidence of burials an additional 80 meters to the east of the previous known boundaries of the graveyard. It also affirms the existence of graves in this vicinity which has now yielded now at least 5 kayraks since 2017.

The forensic reporting done with the two graves found during the 2020 excavations are preliminary results done in the field by non-specialists. These findings should be considered in light of occurring prior to examination by a forensic scientist. The adult skeleton, following recordation, was packed separately according to their axial and appendicular arrangements, both right and left, with individual labels and then the entire skeleton was carefully boxed and labeled. The hope is that laboratory forensics will provide a wealth of information that can enhance, supplement, and where necessary, correct the field forensic analysis.

These two skeletons are listed in this forensic analysis numerically according to unit and loci number. To understand the context of these remains archaeologically, we refer the reader to the Unit and Loci Descriptions for Area C, Unit 12 and Area B, Unit 6.

L-216 (Unit-12, Area C,)

Measurements:

Femur 6.4 cm

Humerus 2.7 cm (partially missing)

Radius missing

Ulna missing

Tibia 5.7 cm

Fibula missing

Cranium 3.2 cm (only a small

fragment)

Pelvis missing Entire length indeterminate

Body Description:

Body position: supine, though difficult to discern

Directional orientation of the body: possible east/west (based on femur orientation) Position of hands: Indeterminate

Head position: skull bones highly fractured, very little preserved

Grave Goods: None present.

Overall State of Preservation:

Grade 1 (30% or less), Only one small skull fragment found, 1 Femur, 2 tibias and two arm bones (humerus?).

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: No

Milk teeth: none found

Signs of osteoarthritis: Indeterminate

Age Estimation: Infant, or stillborn.

Sex determination observations: Indeterminate based on age.

Additional comments/observations: Found while clearing a space along the northern edge of Unit 12, approximately 3.70 m south of the boundary at a level of 597.618 m asl. These scattered remains were found within a 60 x 40 cm area. The bones, like the skull, were badly damaged. Judging by the surviving remains, the child was buried at a shallow depth, with his head to the west. A large amount of ash was found in the area where the skull was probably located.

L-008 (Unit-6, Area B, L-008)

Measurements:

Femur 25 cm (partial bone) Humerus 27.3 (partial bone) Radius 23.7 cm

Ulna 21.7 cm (partial bone)

Tibia 20.2 cm (partial bone)

Fibula missing

Cranium missing

Pelvis too damaged following removal Entire length 105 cm (of remaining torso)

Body Description:

Body position: Extended, supine.

Directional orientation of the body: upper torso at west, lower body at east.

Position of hands: Hands supine along body with the left hand placed under left pelvis.

Head position: n/a, head missing

Grave Goods: Yes, pottery sherd appeared to have been placed at the elbow joint of the right arm, also a conical piece of metal was found under the left femur.

Overall State of Preservation:

Grade 2 (30% to 60%), head missing, lower appendicular bones missing, bones very fragile possibly due to exposure to moisture. On one femur present (left) and it was damaged above the knee, probable agricultural damage.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: Yes

Milk teeth: n/a

Signs of osteoarthritis: Indeterminate, but possible evidence of some sort of osteological disease or trauma on both right and left appendicular arm bones due to exceptional bulges on the anterolateral surfaces of the humerus bones with possible similar features on the radius and ulna bones of both arms.

Age Estimation: Middle-aged adult (40 or older).

Sex determination observations: No cranial features could be examined, making sex determination more problematic. However, pelvic region indicates possible female based on the depth of the sciatic notch (though incomplete) and slightness of the bones.

Possible Sex: Female

Additional comments/observations: Found at a level of 597.776 m. asl. (Appendix B, Figs 72-96). The right clavicle was displaced to the northwest of the body. The finger phalanges of the right hand were located on the southern side of the pelvic bone in an irregular position. Grave disturbance probably due to agricultural activity.

APPENDIX G. DRAWINGS OF FINDS

Table №1. 1) Ib_20_В_7_IV_017_I002; 2) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I013; 3) Ib_20_С_IV_212_

I016; 4) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I003

Table №2. 1) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I022; 2) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I019; 3) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I020;

4) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I021

Table №3. 1) Ib_20_С_IV_185_I003; 2) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I023; 3) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I018;

4) Ib_20_С_IV_230_I002

Table №4. 1) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I015; 2) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I001; 3) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I010

Table №5. 1) Ib_20_С_IV_234; 2) Ib_20_В_6_IV_001_ I001; 3) Ib_20_В_7_IV_003_I001;

4) Ib_20_С_IV_213

Table №6. 1) Ib_20_С_IV_185_I001; 2) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I012

Table №7. 1) Ib_20_В_6_IV_007_I007; 2) Ib_20_IV_C_I001; 3) Ib_20_В_7_IV_017_I003;

4) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I014; 5) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I004; 6) Ib_20_В_7_IV_017_I001

Table №8. 1) Ib_20_С_IV_185_I002; 2) Ib_20_С_IV_230_I001; 3) Ib_20_В_6_IV_007_I002

Table      №9. 1) Ib_20_В_6_IV_007_I003; 2) Ib_20_С_IV_212_ I011; 3) Ib_20_В_6_IV_008_I001

Table №10. 1-13) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I002

Table №11. 1) Ib_20_С_IV_212_ I007; 2) Ib_20_С_IV_212_I009; 3) Ib_20_С_IV_212_ I017

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FIELD REPORT ON THE
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS AT USHARAL-ILIBALYK, KAZAKHSTAN IN 2021

Gravestone found at Usharal-Ilibalyk cemetery in 2021

INTRODUCTION

The archaeological excavations at the Usharal-Ilibalyk site in the Panfilov district (Almaty Oblast), Republic of Kazakhstan, has completed its sixth season. Cooperation between Archaeological Expertise (Almaty, Kazkhstan), the Society for the Exploration of Eurasia (Switzerland), the Lanier Center for Archaeology (Lipscomb University, USA), and the Archaeological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan, along with other independent donors, more than 26 archaeologists, hundreds of volunteers, and local workers from Usharal and around Kazakhstan, have made these excavations over this period quite successful. This project has revealed a major medieval city along the important trade network north of the Tien Shan mountains spanning the Ili Valley and Dzungarian Basin. Moreover, significant evidence has uncovered a large community belonging to the Church of the East dating from the 13th through 14th centuries. This data has provided important new information, such as evidence of a Christian community that lasted several generations within the territory of modern Kazakhstan; complementing our knowledge of other knowns sites in the southern (Chuy Valley) and northern Zhetisu (Semirechye) (Ili Valley) during the Mongol era.

Our findings have provided exceptional new information pertaining to epigraphy as revealed in the five gravestones (kayraks) with inscriptions in Old Turkic and Syriac providing names of the individuals who lived along this Silk Road city demonstrating both their religious and Turkic backgrounds. The excavations of the cemetery, thus far, has revealed homogeneous burial practices of 90 graves, with the interred ranging in age from still born to elderly, together with 39 gravestones. Survey work indicates the possible existence of an additional 100 graves, and more clearly delineated the boundaries of the cemetery which, by preliminary estimates may contain up to 500 burials in total.

A topographical survey of the entire medieval city, and excavations in the shahristan (administrative center), has confirmed its municipal boundaries which would have incorporated more than 5 km2. Ramparts, over six meters in height, once surrounded the shahristan. Rabads (residential, commercial, and production centers) occupied areas around the shahristan along the fertile flood plain between and around two small streams. Within the ramparts a monumental bathhouse, with Roman-style hypocaust system, was revealed along with a horde of jewelry, including coral and cowrie shells—these types of buildings and objects indicate cultural and trade connections extending far west to the Mediterranean Sea and far south to the Indian Ocean. Likewise, the grave goods have revealed similar wide-ranging connections as well as local practices and manufacture.

This 2020 season, though abbreviated due to Covid-19 travel restrictions, yielded the existence of either a small church or, more likely, a funerary chapel immediately south of the portion of the cemetery in Area C (Fig. 1). The building (8.5 x 23 m), constructed of mudbrick and positioned along a precise east-west axis, demarcated the southern extent of the cemetery. Its high-status pottery, including glazed oil lamps with possible Christian symbolism and a thurible, demonstrates its ritual function. Six large stones were found along the northern and southern walls, served as column bases, suggesting a hall-like area to the west (Block 2). The eastern section of the building (Block 1) was square and included internal pilasters so that a domed structure was possible; if so, it is estimated to have been at least eight meters in height.

Fig. 1: Hypothetical reconstruction of Area C, U-12 possible funerary chapel and accompanying top plan. Ills. by Charles A. Stewart

2: Hypothetical reconstruction of possible funerary chapel illustrating 2-phases of construction. Ills. by Charles A. Stewart

Heading into our 2021 season, questions remained concerning whether additional structures might be present in the area. What is the connection between the western rabad and the cemetery, particularly in Area B? During the 2017 season, we discovered evidence of residential occupation very close to the cemetery (originally interpreted as a phase after the cemetery fell into disuse); however, this interpretation has been revised since new data has been uncovered, such as ceramics, that indicates such occupation was contemporary with the cemetery. Are there further clues concerning the identity of the structure (Unit-12) and its function? A closer investigation of the church/chapel and its surrounding context was needed to see if it could be more specifically identified, and whether the structure was isolated or part of a larger complex of buildings. Midden pits near the chapel to the south needed to be investigated since these could yield more cultural

material related to both the community and/or the structure. Excavations to the south and west could also help determine if all the burials lie strictly to the north of the structure.

Finally, what was the connection and chronology between the burial discovered in Area B (further to the east) with those of Area C? As our samples of radiocarbon dates increase, a clearer picture of chronology is emerging; most burials in Area C are connected to the early to mid-14th century. The discovery of a grave in Area B compeled us to investigate this 100-meter gap between the respective burials, to see if there is any evidence of a boundary between the two areas; if so, this phenomenon could indicate a chronological shift or a spatial division based on social status, or some other explanation.

Based on our research questions, the following objectives guided our archaeological investigations for 2021.

Objectives:

1. To determine full extent of funerary chapel and grounds with a particular focus to the south and west of U-12 (Area C).
2. Determine the sterile layer in and around the funerary chapel by digging around the foundations of the site.
3. Focus on Loci 185, 257, and 258 to determine if graves exist and what their relationship are to U-12.
4. Investigate the midden pits in Area C, Unit-12, Loci 221, 222, 223.
5. Excavate south of U-7 in Area B to determine if there is occupational space in relation to the midden pits in this location.
6. Determine the relationship between the grave discovered in Area B, Unit 6, L-008 and the graves in Area C by conducting test pit excavations toward the west.
7. Continue to provide forensic data for any revealed skeletons.
8. Analyze pottery in conjunction with previous seasons’ radiocarbon dates to better understand the chronology of the site to determine burial chronologies and a possible burial pattern.
9. Continue the use of photogrammetry of the site as new features are revealed utilizing drone and total station.

Fig. 3. Drone photo with overlaid Area boundaries (B, C, D) from Field IV comprising general area of cemetery

Dig Priorities

As our field report will demonstrate, almost 80% of the above-mentioned objectives were either fully or partially accomplished. Limitations due to the Covid-19 pandemic meant that the dates for our excavations could only occur between September 28 – October 24, 2021. This is a time in which climactic conditions are in seasonal transition in southeast Kazakhstan, thus, our efforts were hampered occasionally by rain which meant not everyday could be spent in the field. For the second year in a row, we were without our international colleagues and volunteers due to travel and social restrictions into and within Kazakhstan due to the pandemic. Thus, our excavation team was only about a third of the size from previous seasions. During excavations, all local and national governmental regulations were followed, with all our workers outside the village of Usharal fully vaccinated. All workers were screened daily with body temperature checks at the beginning and end of the workday. In addition, all official permissions were obtained and regulations, as outlined by the Ministry of Culture for the Republic of Kazakhstan and the forestry officials for the regionally protected area of the Panfilov district where our excavations in Area C have taken place, continue to be followed according to the pertinent laws and regulations.

Our dig plan placed a priority on excavating those areas of the site that might provide the most significant information in the shortest amount of time. Thus, our first priority was to focus on Area C, Unit 12, and a large section of ground to the south of this Unit, dubbed Unit 13. The team sought to determine if additional structures lie in the area to the south and west of the structure found the previous season and to see if there are any burials close to or in direct relationship with the structure.

Our second priority was to focus on the space immediately south of Area B, Unit 7 to see if a structure lies in relation to the midden pits discovered last season. Previous GPR data (2017) suggested a wall or significant mudbrick detritus. Finding more structures could assist in a broader interpretation of the site overall. However, due to our personnel limitations, it was decided to not attempt to excavate in Area B this season. With only two professional archaeologists in the field, the ability to properly supervise workers in two separate locations separated by a very large hedge row was not ideal, thus, this part of the dig plan had to be abandoned.

Our third priority was to locate more graves due west of the burials discovered in Area C (specifically Units 7 and 8). This would hopefully “close the gap” between the large number of burials in Area C and the one discovered almost 100 meters east in Area B the previous season. It would confirm the existence of burials extending to the west and provide further confirmation of the size of the cemetery and if our current estimates on the number of interments are correct. Obtaining more forensic data would assist with things such as chronology from a combination of radiocarbon dating, pottery, and possible grave goods that might shed more light on the Christian community of Ilibalyk. As the report indicates, progress was made, and our goals even exceeded in this particular objective.

Equipment Utilized

All the topographical, photographic, and excavation equipment used in previous seasons has been utilized during the 2021 expedition. Full specifications and descriptions can be found in previous field reports and will not be delinated here. Excavations were conducted utilizing hand shovels, trowels, and other hand tools. Because the site is located on an environmentally protected area and for the sake of preserving the architectural features previously discovered, soil has been backfilled and certain grave sites as well as the revealed funerary chapel were covered with

Geotech fabric. Excavations began with the re-exposure of these sites, particularly Unit 12. The fabric proved quite effective in preserving the mudbrick foundations discovered in 2020.

The following field report provides descriptions of each element of the excavations and preliminary interpretations of those excavations; descriptions, photographs and drawings of discovered artifacts; field forensics and initial data from the graves excavated; and an analysis of the chronological data; and the subsequent hypotheses derived from the various interpretations of the findings.

Unit 8A

This unit, which was previously delineated during the 2019 season, incorporated the west- central sector of Area C and including 2018 season’s Units 1, 2, and 6 within the overall context. The unit has a rectangular shape and measures 8.4 meters on the northern side, 18.1 meters on the western side, 9.7 meters on the southern side, and 17.5 meters on the eastern side for a total of 162 m2. The surface levels from the previously cleared surface were 597.500 m. asl. in the north and 597.300 m. asl. in the south.

Of the 8 loci which were identified as potential graves in 2019, two contained visible human remains (juvenile skulls). The others were observed mudbrick construction which indicated probable graves, but without excavation this could not be confirmed. Half of the possible graves appeared to be small and/or were loci with the juvenile skulls found in the cleared soil. The other half appeared rather large which could contain larger children or adult graves. Unit 8A lay due north of Unit 9A and northeast of the newly excavated Unit 14. This unit contained Locus 111A/B which was excavated during this current season and marks the first grave(s) to be fully excavated within Unit 8A.

Locus 111A
Grave

A decision was made to also investigate a possible grave first revealed during the 2019 season that was in U-8A, which lay immediately northeast of Unit 14. This locus was located due north of Unit 6, a section excavated in 2018 that contained 5 graves, 4 infants (L-012, L-030, L- 031, L-032 and one adult, L-049), a male estimated to be over 50 years old.

The grave as seen from the surface appeared to be that of an adult due to the row of at least 20 ash-colored bricks that were possibly laid vertically on their ledges over the grave, which would have identified the grave as a Type 2B, but, as seen below, this interpretation would be modified. (See Diagram 3, pg. 234 in the 2019 field report) Another probable grave, labeled L-195, also in U-8A was visible in the baulk of the old Unit 6 (excavated in 2018) and also appeared to have a row of vertically placed bricks. This latter grave lies due east of the northeast boundary of U-14. Time restraints prohibited investigation of L-195.

The grave was once again revealed clearly in the soil just as it was discovered in 2019. The twenty rows of gray-colored bricks (made from ash fill or gray clay). Clearing of the soil and bricks in association with the grave showed that the gray-colored bricks had both animal bone and ceramic slag as a part of the temper for brick construction. This is a significant confirmation that large particles of temper were included in these ash-colored bricks. Previous seasons raised the question to whether potsherds found within the graves were intentionally placed or were merely a part of the soil fill or from the fabric of the bricks. This seems to confirm the latter hypothesis. It should be noted, however, that the specific bricks of L-111 were filled with an exceptional amount of this cultural material used as temper, thus, it exceeds the norm of mudbricks seen in graves throughout the cemetery.

Following this initial clearing with hand tools, new photographs and levels were taken with a total station: W: 597.111 m. asl.; C: 597.194 m. asl.; E: 597.277 m. asl. Initially, the bricks were further defined by lowering the soil around the edges. What appeared to be a human bone (clavicle?) was seen under a brick on the southwest side of the row of bricks.

Skeletal Levels for L-111A: Skull (W): 596.866 m. asl.; Pelvis: (C) 596.761 m. asl.; Feet (E) 596.720 m. asl. Closing levels of grave floor: W: 596.707 m. asl.; C: 596.681 m. asl.; E: 596.686
m. asl.

Locus 111B
Grave

Excavations began in this locus in the northeast corner of the brick-covered grave following the full exposure of the remains in L-111A. Skull fragments, very tiny metacarpals, and a few phalanges were exposed in this small grave pit surrounded by a “brick box” measuring 23 (E/W) x 15 cm (N/S) cm and located at the northeast side of the brick covering for L-111A. This confirmed the presence of either a newborn or stillborn buried most likely in connection with the grave in L-111A.

The body appeared to also have a west-to-east orientation since the skull fragments were on the western side of the small grave. Photos were taken of the bones. The skull was extremely fragmented and could not be kept in place even with careful brushing of the soil. The bones were too fragile to be kept in situ but could only be removed from the soil. They were collected with the only other recognizable bones among the fragments being 3 ribs and possibly a clavicle bone. One partial orbit bone from the cranium was found along with an underdeveloped sacrum. A few deciduous teeth were found and following the analysis by our on-site dental pathologist, it was determined that these teeth had never erupted from the mandible. Thus, it is believed these remains come from either a newborn or stillborn child.

A plausible interpretation from the data is that the child and female in U-111A died during childbirth and the child was subsequently buried in the small brick tomb placed at the northeast corner of the brick covering for the niche grave (see above). Following the interment of the possible female in the grave, the child was interred with the square chamber created by one course of bricks and then possibly covered with soil or covered with another brick.

The remains were bagged and labeled. The bottom of the grave pit was measured with a total station at 597.124 m. asl. Photos were taken of the locus individually and in the context of L-111A.

Unit 12

Unit 12 was originally excavated in 2020 (see 2020 Field Report, pgs. 11-13) delineated as rectangular in shape with the sides oriented along the north-south and west-east axis. The unit measured 22.5 m from north-to-south with a width of 32 m from west-to-east line. This made the total area approximately 660 m2. Over the course of the previous year, herbaceous vegetation had regrown, even with the layer of Geotech fabric that had extended over the entirety of this unit laying just 5-7 cm under the soil placed to protect the architectural feature discovered during the previous dig.

This is the third time that a significant portion of Unit 12 had been exposed, even though the unit was first designated at Unit 12 in 2020. Previous exposure occurred in 2017 in which the topsoil layer was removed by mechanical means. One trench (5 x 5 m) was dug at that time (first designated as Unit 2, but a subsequent unit in 2018 in Area C also received this designation) in this section which revealed a large stone (40 х 31 х 9 cm) with hundreds of pick marks but with no discernable inscription or design as well as a pottery fragments and animal bone. (See 2017 dig report, pp. 107-116, 119- 120, 158).

Excavations in U-12 revealed a rectangular building 21 (E/W) x 8.7 (N/S) m in dimension with an east-to-west orientation. The building consisted of three rooms and a possible courtyard and is fully explained in the 2020 Field Report (see pp. 12-30). The team has interpreted this structure as a possible funerary chapel based on the building’s orientation, its architectural layout and its context being situated due south of the cemetery. In addition, high status pottery and ecclesiastical artifacts add to the possible religious function of the structure. Agricultural activity impacted the features of this building and only the lowest layer of the building can be traced in the soil. Foundation stones in the eastern half of the structure designate a probable hall with the stones serving as wooden post foundations, which suggests a possible vaulted ceiling. The area also showed signs of burning which may have contributed to its collapse. For the remainder of this report, references to this feature in U-12 will be simply called “the structure” or “funerary chapel.”

Excavators identified 51 loci within U-12 in 2020. Most of these were various architectural features associated with the structure. One grave and one possible grave with an undetermined accompanying feature (L-185) with a kayrak (gravestone, L-234) were also noted to the north of the structure. Two small furnaces (known in the Central Asian context as a tandoor,) were found, one (L-214) appeared to be outside the structure, yet associated with it, the other (L-220) appeared inside the possible altar area (designated Room 3) on the far east side of the building. To the south of the structure, a series of ash pits and/or middens were also identified. Within two of these pits, a significant amount of pottery was found in 2020 (L-222, L-223). This southern area became a focal point for the 2021 excavations along with the sector of Area C that extends south of U-12 (designated as Unit 13, see below).

At the start of this 2021 excavation, U-12 was re-exposed following the removal of the Geotech fabric which revealed the cleared surface of L-212 and preserved the mudbrick and features of the structure quite well. Only a few selected loci both to the north and south of the funerary chapel were examined over the course of the current excavation. These descriptions are detailed below.

Locus 212 (1)
Level

This locus designated the cleared level of U-12. The final cleared level of the locus that designated all of U-12 measured at the conclusion of 2020 measured as follows: SW: 597.150; NW: 597.480; NE: 597.631; SE: 597.336 m. asl.

As the Geotech fabric was cleared from the locus, the backfilled soil still contained cultural material from the redistributed soil. Pottery sherds and animal bone were collected in buckets with the understanding that there was no appropriate context and/or matrix from where they were discovered.

Most of the pottery fragments were composed of the same common ware discovered during previous seasons. A few pieces of glazed pottery were also found, but most significantly a fragment of worked white granite was found. This piece (approximately 5 cm x 3 cm) had a curved surface on one side that had been obviously smoothed. Both sides of the fragment were chipped, and their outer surfaces were rough, unlike the curved upper surface. This piece was possibly a fragment for some sort of memorial marker or gravestone, given the context of the nearby cemetery.

(1) It has been recently detected that Loci 212 – 215 had been previously designated during the 2019 season, thus creating duplicate loci numbers within Area C. This will be corrected with the eventual publication of an errata document in the future. For now, any reference in this report to Loci 212 through 215 should be considered those designated during the 2020-21 season.

Follow the removal of the Geotech fabric from L-212, roots and growth that occurred between seasons were removed. The loci from the previous season were re-identified. The preservation of the structure was excellent with the only damage being the identifiable hooves of a horse that had run just south and parallel with the section of the structure’s southern wall L-245, L-246, L-247).

During final clearing of the backfill of the locus, in the southeast corner of U-12, some soil was cleared around a bush that had remained untouched as a part of the natural conservation regulations which had not been completely lowered the soil during the previous season. This yielded a small scatter of pottery and one fired brick.

Locus 220
Tandoor (Furnace)

This locus, identified in 2020, was a “tandoor” oven (furnace) found in the northeast side of U-12 and measured 50 cm in diameter at a level of 597.647 m. asl. The ceramic remains of the oven had remained in the soil and were disarticulated from the soil. These small fragments (127) were gathered. One burned animal bone was also found in the fill. This tandoor is likely associated with the structure found in U-12 although it may also have been added later and used independently of the structure and the cemetery.

Locus 222
Ash fill

Locus 222, identified in the 2020 season and located to the southwest of the structure in U- 12, was thought to be a possible midden. The locus lay to the east of L-223 and northwest of L-
265. Initial lowering of the soil revealed calcinated (red) soil interspersed with small areas of ash. After the initial sweep of 1-2 cm, new photos were taken of this locus first identified the previous year. The feature was an amorphous shape and initially identified on the surface as measuring 150 (N/S) x 100 (E/W) cm.

The entire fill of this feature was ash with almost no cultural material, particularly within the area of the main fill. This was a major contrast to excavations at this location in the previous season in which the locus yielded not only ash, but also a significant amount of pottery and bones. Photos were taken and the harder soil at the bottom of the ash was measured with a total station: N:
597.018 m. asl. S: 597.083 m. asl. Final dimensions of the revealed locus were 160 N/S x 50 E/W cm. Final photographs were taken and the locus was closed. It was noted that the ash fill may extend further north and possibly indicated a connection with the structure. In the greater context of the excavation in the newly exposed Unit 13, it appears to be part of the larger area of burning and ash fills found throughout the area south of the structure.

Eventually, during further clearing, the boundaries of L-222 and L-223 were combined since the ash fill appeared to spread across both loci. This new ash level, about 5 cm below the cleared surface of L-212 and extending an additional 5 cm lower resulted in opening a new locus, L-283 (see below)

(2) It is noted that the measurements for L-292 may be inaccurate. The opening levels are off by approximately 10 to 15 cm lower than the opening levels. This may be due to a calibration error that occurred during the theodolite set up on the day opening measurements were taken. As a result, based on our understanding of infant/child burials, we believe that the closing measurements are the accurate ones. Thus, the actual opening measurements are probably in the 597.300 to 597.200 m. asl. range.

During clearing operations following a first pass of U-14/L-266, on the western side of U- 14 a rather large amount of animal bones and pottery in a concentrated area was steadily uncovered, particularly in the area beyond the westernmost grave discovered in the unit (L-277). As a result, a new locus was opened to document this increase. L-294 encompassed a 4.5 (E/W) x 11 (N/S) m section, or the area incorporating the entire western side of U-14. It is considered that this section marks the western boundary of the cemetery as characterized by the larger concentration of cultural material found in the soil. In addition, the animal bones from this section in several cases appear to have been butchered possibly for the purpose of meal preparation. More than 350 bone fragments and 200 potsherds were taken from the soil within this section of the unit with the central section of the locus having the highest concentration of finds. These bone finds appeared approximately 20 – 30 cm below the topsoil surface of U-14/L-266.

When comparing the soil fill of the eastern half of Unit 14 with the western half, the concentration of finds is 7.33 bones and 4.82 potsherds for every 1 m2 of soil in the western half of the unit with 1.78 bones and 3.07 potsherds for every 1m2 of soil in the eastern half of the unit. The eastern half of U-14 contains graves whereas the western half does not. Thus, based on the increase in cultural material, particularly the amount of animal bone, this provides evidence for the hypothesis that the western edge of the cemetery has been reached. It also provides evidence that possible food preparation was occurring around the borders of the cemetery.

Levels and photographs were taken: SW: 597.217 m. asl.; NW: 597.358 m. asl; NE: 597.246
m. asl.; SE: 597.206 m. asl.; C: 597.154 m. asl. Protruding out of the northern baulk of U-14 in this locus at the cleared level, a rock and fired brick were discovered. A level of this feature was also taken: 597.236 m. asl.

Unit 15

This excavation unit was delineated on the east side of Area C. It measured 15 E/W x 11 (N/S) m encompassing a total of 165 m2 and bordered to the east of Unit 7D by approximately 9 m and Unit 8B by approximately 2 m. Units 7D, first exposed during the 2019 excavations, yielded 19 excavated graves signifying the largest concentration of graves in Area C as well as the largest number of adult graves found so far in the cemetery.

An additional 8 possible graves were identified in this section and remain unexcavated. Unit 8B had even less excavation with the exception of a few infant graves exposed in this unit in 2018 with a further 20 identified, yet, unexcavated graves in 2019. Thus, opening U-15 was justified to confirm that graves continued eastward in the direction of Areas D and B. Most of the soil in this unit lay under a previous season’s dump piles with extra soil that may have artificially raised the previous modern surface prior to excavations in Area C. However, the eastern half of Unit 15, by approximately 5 meters at this level has never been previously exposed. Vegetation and soil characteristics are similar as throughout Area C.

Locus 276
Level

(3) When the unit was first measured, the northern boundary was measured incorrectly, thus initial drone photos show the eastern boundary as only extending 14 meters to the east. This was later corrected with exposure according to the initially determined dimensions.

On the southwest side of the unit at the edge of the southern baulk, human remains were discovered. The skull juvenile/infant was initially exposed. The skull was fractured according to its fontanelles and was dislodged from the skull’s soil fill. The grave was at a higher level in the soil than the exposed soil to the west in U-7D which is characteristic of many of the juvenile burials throughout the cemetery. The soil was harder in the area around the grave, which may suggest mudbrick was used to line the grave. A new locus was opened (L-278). (See locus description below). While L-276 was in process of being completely lowered, excavations commenced on this grave. (See description below).

In the northwest corner of the unit an adult-sized femur and tibia bone (both partial fragments) were discovered. The area around the soil was carefully examined and the loose soil was cleared to expose a grave pit either in the cleared level or within the northern baulk. Neither location indicated that a grave was present. The bones were left in place until photos and levels could be taken. The fragments were 597.796 m. asl. A new locus was opened (L-279).

A metal pipe (opium pipe?; Ib_21_C_IV_276_I001) was discovered in the dump pile by a worker during removal of the initial layer of soil in the locus in the east-central section of Unit 15. In addition, a small, brown piece of paper/fabric/vellum (?) was found inside the pipe (Ib_C_IV_276_I002). There appeared to be four handwritten letters on the material. This artifact was carefully wrapped in cloth, labeled, and bagged. The pipe was photographed in situ at the suspected location and a level was taken with the total station and the find measured at a level of 597.702 m. asl. The material with the possible writing was considered too fragile to handle in the field and was later photographed in the field photography lab. (See Cultural Materials Analysis section, pp. 51-55, Figs 12,13,14).

Following the initial clearing of the level, it was determined to make a second pass with shovels to bring the Unit 15 level even with the cleared surface of units on the west side which would be congruent with the level in which additional graves might become visible in the soil. Only a small amount of cultural material was found in the soil at this level. Soil on the eastern end of the unit was much harder than the west probably because this soil was not excavated by the tractor during the topsoil removal in 2017.

As the entirety of L-276 was leveled down to the “cemetery level” of U-7D and U-8B, in the northeast corner of Unit 15, a skull was found in the soil. A new locus was assigned (L-286). Also, during this clearing process a flat iron fragment with a flared end was discovered at the 597.324
m. asl. It was designated as a special find and photographs were taken in situ. (Ib_C_IV_276_I003; See Cultural Material Analysis section, p. 67, Fig. 37).

Final clearing of the remaining dust in L-276 was conducted by mechanical blower. The exposed area was inspected for potential graves that might appear in the soil. At this phase in the excavations, four additional potential graves were specifically identified, and one grave (L-278) was in the process of being excavated. One possible grave appeared with a line and cluster of gray- colored bricks in the soil on the western boundary of U-15 (designated L-289). One child’s skull was identified near the east baulk of the unit (designated L-286). Two other possible graves (designated L-291 and L-290) were due south of L-286 and almost completely parallel with one another. All the graves appeared to have a west-to-east orientation with L-290 and L-291 extending into the eastern baulk. The decision was made to partially expose the possible graves in L-290 and L-291; to leave the child’s skull in L-286 unexcavated once its approximate age was determined; and to fully excavate the possible remains in L-289. (See loci descriptions below).

Following two days of rain showers, more features were seen in both the cleared surface of L-276 (U-15) as well as within the baulk of the unit particularly the northern baulk due to the wet soil. A possible grave was seen in this northern profile. In addition, the base sterile layer could be distinguished in both the northern and eastern baulks. The grave pits as seen in the east baulk were also more easily distinguished in L-290 and L-291.

The rain also revealed a series of circles in the soil, all with the diameter of 65 cm, on the western side of U-15/L-276. They were positioned as follows:

Circle 1: 480 cm east of the west boundary, 180 cm from the north baulk Circle 2: 560 cm east of the west boundary, 430 cm from the north baulk Circle 3: 670 cm east of the west boundary, 670 cm from the north baulk Circle 4: 760 cm east of the west boundary, 970 cm from the north baulk Circle 5: 0 cm east of the west boundary, 660 cm from the north baulk

A possible sixth circle was seen in the soil but was failed to be noted prior to moisture evaporation. The circles did not appear to provide a clear pattern for any sort of feature or potential construction. Their complete uniformity in diameter suggests that these were created by modern agricultural equipment, specifically the planting of trees. Since the location is said by the locals to have at one time been an apple orchard during the latter half of the 20th century, these features are considered to indicate that process.

At the conclusion of excavations, the northern, southern, and eastern baulk profiles were drawn. Closing levels for the locus measured as follows: SW: 597.600 m. asl; NW: 597.760 m. asl; NE: 597.500 m. asl.; SE corner was the fill removal ramp.)

Locus 278
Grave

During initial expose in U-15/L-276 on the southwest side of the unit on the edge of the southern baulk, human remains were discovered. A juvenile skull was exposed whose fontanelles were slipping from the soil fill inside the skull. The soil was hard in the area around the remains which may have suggested that mudbrick lined the grave.

Photographs and levels were taken of the revealed skull: Top of skull: 597.712 m. asl.; Base of skull: 597.650 m. asl. Excavations proceeded on the remains utilizing small dental tools and brushes. The body was supine and extended with a west-to-east orientation, the skull was separated along the fissures of the fontanelles though predominately intact with most of the remains in a good overall state of preservation, though some bones, especially the ribs were somewhat disturbed. Very few of the phalanges of the feet or hands were present except for five finger phalanges. The right radius and ulna were missing. The head was slightly raised, but in this case gazing south/southeast which may indicate intentional placement in this direction. The legs appeared to have been drawn together at the feet. The left arm was placed along the side of the body with the left hand along the ilium of the pelvis. Because the radius and ulna of the right forearm were missing, placement of the right hand was indeterminate.

A small mudbrick was found on top of the thoracic area of the body. Three small stones were found in the grave fill. One was a rectangular red granite stone under the left pelvis; the other a rounded stone but flattened on both sides under the right pelvis; and one stone was placed on the outside of the left humerus by the elbow.

The grave was covered with gray-colored mudbricks as indicative of the brick found on the thoracic region (which had a pink tint, possibly due to calcination or burning). Other bricks were especially visible in the lower appendicular region of the skeleton with gray soil fill on the outer sides of the legs as well as between the femurs and tibias. Preliminary field analysis of the teeth suggests a child between 2 to 4 years at time of death.

The remains were photographed with levels taken of both the remains and of the final level of the grave pit. Levels of skeletal remains: Head (E) 597.509 m. asl.; Pelvis (C) 597.438 m. asl.; Feet (W) 597.472 m. asl. Closing levels of grave: W: 597.622 m. asl; C: 597.599 m. asl; E: 597.616 m. asl. (4)

The skeletal remains were exhumed, measured, wrapped in aluminum foil, labeled, and boxed for later analysis. Soil samples were taken from around both the head and abdominal areas.

(4) Once again, it is noted that the skeletal levels are lower than the closing levels of the grave with an error of 16 to 10 cm. This error is possible due to the same theodolite error mentioned above (see f.n. 2)

Locus 279
Human Remains

In the northwest corner of U-15/L-276 an adult-sized femur and tibia bone (both partial fragments) were discovered. The area of the soil around these bones was carefully examined, the loose soil cleared for the purpose of trying to discern a grave either in the floor level of L-276 or in the northern baulk of the unit. The bones were left in place until photographs and levels could be taken. The locus was opened and measured at a level of 597.796 m. asl. This level for adult graves is atypical and higher than most adult remains discovered in Area C; thus, this may be a reason that these bones were disarticulated and not discovered with a specific grave and may have been dislodged during initial clearing in 2017 or from previous agricultural activity.

The bones appear to be a left femur and tibia. The partial femur measured 25 cm in length with the ball joint fully corroded. The broken tibia measured 33 cm in length. A small stone was also present under the bone at the time of the discovery. All soil in the vicinity of the bone was sifted, a small bone fragment (approx. 4 cm) was discovered but it was unknown as to whether this fragment was part of these human remains or in association with the leg bones.

Locus 284
Human Remains

During clearing operation in U-15/L-276, a disarticulated (unassigned) juvenile’s right femur was found in the soil. An attempt to find an associated grave proved unsuccessful. However, a new locus was opened, L-284, with the revealed bone measured at a level of 597.235 m. asl. Photos were taken of the bone in situ and the bone was measured (17 cm, ball joint was still intact), labeled, and bagged.

Locus 286
Human Remains

During the lowering operations in U-15/L-276, a skull was revealed in the northeast corner of the unit. The remains were assigned a new locus (L-286). Photographs were taken and it measured at a level of 597.358 m. asl. and was located 1.2 m from the northern baulk and 1 m west of the eastern baulk. The skull was further cleared to the top of the forehead and around the back to confirm that this was from a juvenile. This skull had a brownish discoloration very similar in color to the adult skull found in L-291 which was enclosed by a wooden cover/coffin and located just 60 cm to the northwest of the adult skull. This raises the question as to whether this juvenile skull may also have had a small coffin/cover associated with it, although no wood or other material was found in or around the skull. Ultimately, it was decided to leave the remains in the soil. The skull was then re-covered with soil and will remain unexcavated. This does provide confirmation of the existence of a child’s grave at this location.

Locus 289
Grave

Following the clearing of U-15/L-276 to the same level as the western boundary of U-7D and U-8B, this locus was first identified based on the presence of gray-colored mudbricks in the soil following mechanical clearing of the dust on the floor of the unit. The potential boundaries of the grave were discerned based on the mudbricks in the soil with the boundaries of the grave proceeding southwest and northeast of the identified locus with the latter boundary laying close to the northern baulk of the unit. One significant cluster of bricks could be identified in the surface in what might be considered the center of the possible grave.

Following initial photographs and an opening level (597.675 m. asl.) an initial sweep of the soil made with hand trowels and putty knives. Another mudbrick was found on the north side of the revealed feature. After lowering the soil 36 cm below the cleared surface of L-276, no human remains had been found. The large cluster of bricks to the northeast were removed to access the rest of the potential grave and to determine if excavators had gone in the wrong direction of the suspected pit as determined by the outlay of the bricks.

The locus was expanded to the northeast by 107 cm and lowered to the same level as the rest of the locus. Still nothing was found at this 36-40 cm level below the cleared surface of L-276. The decision was made to continue to lower the soil in 5 cm increments within the suspected grave pit.
One section of gray bricks on the south side of the locus appeared to have at least 3 to 4 courses that proceeded downward almost 45 cm below the cleared surface of L-276. This raised the question that if these bricks proceeded downward, then perhaps the grave was dug to an even lower depth. Therefore, lowering continued despite no apparent cultural material. There were no other bricks in floor of the locus and sandy, brownish-red soil emerged at this point.

At the 50 cm level below the cleared surface of L-276, following clearing of the dust by mechanical means, an oblong, oval shape with a slightly darker colored soil was seen in the floor of locus with an east/west orientation which indicated a grave. Using trowels and hand tools, excavators attempted to see if human remains were present in this oblong oval which measured 40 N/S x 140 E/W cm.

At this 50 cm level below the cleared surface, some human remains began to be revealed and were eventually identified as the right foot of the skeleton. The foot lay with its plantar side inward and dorsal side outward, meaning it lay with the bottom of the feet facing inward toward each other. The femurs, however, as later revealed were not in a similar bowed position. The depth of this first revealed bone was taken at 596.985 m. asl. The east side of the revealed grave pit measured 597.128 m. asl and the west side was 597.006 m. asl. demonstrating that the west side of the grave was 12 cm higher. However, the pelvic bones appeared on the western side of the pit, thus demonstrating that the rest of the body lay under the unexcavated western wall of the locus and that the entirety of the pit was yet to be revealed. At this point, the revealed bones were photographed, and a level was taken of the pelvis (597.013 m. asl.).

Excavations then focused on lowering the soil on the western side of the grave. Eventually, the skull was revealed at the suspected depth. The distance of the skull in the west measured 140 cm from the revealed right foot. Just to the west and immediately behind the skull, a large animal bone (probably cow) was found. It was at the same level as the skull. This could have been a fragment included with brick as temper, but its large size suggests this not to be the case. It could have been a part of the brick fill or soil fill of the grave deposited at the time of interment. Another option is that it was for some reason placed there intentionally.

Excavations continued to expose the remains from the revealed right foot up toward the axial part of the remains including the tibiae and the femurs. The skull and cranial features were also exposed. Overall, the remains were in very good condition. The body was supine with the head raised and with the gaze in a southeasterly direction and slightly downward.

The skull was raised looking southeast and a bit downward. The forearms were placed across the lower abdominal region with the left arm placed at an almost 90-degree angle and resting above the left Illum and the right arm below the left at approximately a 130-degree angle resting across the right Illum.

The remains were completely exposed, and photographs and levels were taken: Skull:
597.137 m. asl.; Pelvis: 597.003 m. asl; Feet: 596.977 m. asl. Examination of the skull and pelvis revealed that the sex of the remains was female based on the sharp medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus and the cranial features such as a sloped forehead, rounded orbits, the smooth nuchal crest, and small mastoid process. All epiphyses were fused confirming an age of more than 28 years. Wear on teeth suggests possible middle age. A dental forensic examination was conducted by by Dr. Byung Yeon Lee (see Dental Forensic Data section, pp. 86-87 and the Field Forensic Analysis section, p. 138). The bones revealed no apparent sign of pathology or trauma. The various appendicular bones were measured as well as the skull’s diameter and width of the pelvis. All the remains were wrapped in aluminum foil, labeled, bagged, and boxed for further analysis. The soil of the grave fill was sifted. The body had no apparent grave goods. Following exhumation of the remains, a final sweep of the soil in the bottom of the grave was conducted. Closing photographs and levels with a total station were taken: W: 596.931 m. asl.; C: 596.914 m. asl.; 596.909 m. asl.

Locus 290
Grave

This locus identified a grave discovered on the eastern side of U-15. Following the total clearing of U-15/L-276, possible grave features appeared in the soil and this locus was opened when possible mudbrick and soil disturbance was observed 4 m from the northern baulk with the potential west-east orientation of the grave extending into the eastern baulk.

After excavations commenced, a few potsherds were found along with small flecks of charcoal. Eventually, it was determined that what were thought to be gray mudbricks was the dark soil from the so-called “detrital layer.” It appeared that the line and rectangular features found in the soil following mechanical clearing were not mudbricks but this detrital soil. Following the removal of a few more centimeters of soil, a few pieces of pottery were found including some glazed fragments. The locus was almost closed, thinking that the area was not a grave, however, it was eventually decided to continue lowering this locus an additional 30 – 40 cm to ensure that no human remains could be found.

At the 34 cm level below the cleared surface of L-276, gray mudbrick was observed in the soil on both the southern and northern walls of the cut revealing a probable grave. Photographs were taken. It was decided to remove soil on the northwest side and gradually lower the soil fill on the southwest side of the locus to better reveal the mudbricks. Levels of these bricks were measured at 596.952 m. asl. To gain access to the grave, excavators expanded the locus to the dimensions of 150 (N/S) x 160 E/W.

The surrounding soil continued to be lowered around the revealed mudbricks in the soil. A clear line in the soil was seen running in a slight southeast-northwest direction proceeding into the east baulk of U-15. On the west side of the potential grave, an arch of 2-3 bricks could be seen within the east baulk. It appeared that a full layer of bricks extended across the grave at the 27 cm below the cleared surface level of L-276. Two bricks appeared at this upper level on the southwest side of the probable grave. In addition, a brick could be seen in the southern wall of the excavated cross-section.

Pink colored (calcinated) soil appeared to the north of the gray bricks accompanied by ash- colored soil which may be remnants of gray mudbrick. The floor of the locus was cleared using a mechanical blower, at which point the grave pit was clearly defined in the soil with an arc in the soil on the west side of the fill with the east side of the feature extending into the east baulk. The upper level of mudbricks was removed following photographs. While removing those bricks, a rather large rim/handle combination from a small juglet was found. (8 x 6.5 x 3.5 cm; handle: 2.8 cm wide; Inner hold of handle: 2.3 x 1.5 cm; weight: 108.7 g.) It was found approximately 30 cm below the cleared surface of L-276 (U-15) and within a gray brick. This again demonstrates that significantly large pieces of pottery were being used as temper for these bricks.

Once the upper mudbricks were removed, the clear parameters of the grave were seen in the soil and measured 60 (N/S) x 90 cm (as extending from the northern border) and 70 cm (as extending from the southern border). At this point, the skeletal remains had not been discovered.
The skull was found at 17 cm below the initial layer of bricks after lowering the locus with two passes using hand tools. The ashy, gray colored mudbrick continued to be seen at this level. The skull appeared to be that of an adult. The ashy, gray-colored bricks were first revealed 17 cm below the line features discerned at the L-276 level and 33 cm below the first layer of bricks, thus 40 cm below the cleared level of L-276, making the skull 90 cm below the initial cleared surface of L-276. Thus, the skull was approximately 150-175 cm below the current daylight surface
The skull was photographed and measured at a depth of 596.746 m. asl. The lower section of the remains was presumably under the east baulk of U-15. It was decided to merely reveal the skull and upper torso and leave the bones in situ until excavators could return later and do a more complete excavation.

The skull’s upper maxilla was the first to appear with all the teeth present. As the entirety of the skull was revealed it was noted that its gaze was to the north with the head askance in that direction. While clearing the skull to the south of the right temporal lobe, a round metal disk-shape with a deep blue color appeared in the soil. The color because of corrosion from the soil suggests that the metal was copper. The disk’s size was measured by means of the imprint made from the corroded disk on a clod of soil immediately next to the metal. The disk’s diameter was 20 mm. Photographs were taken.

The exposed skull’s facial features displayed wide check bones and a full set of teeth with the features favoring mongoloid characteristics. Based on field examination by forensic dentist, Dr. Byung Yeon Lee, preliminary estimates are for a female with an age range of of approximately 30 years old at the time of death.

As excavations continued around the skull, what originally was thought to be a metal disk such as a piece of jewelry or earring, proved to be a type of phylactery cylinder which was part of a Mongolian boqta (known in Russian as bocca, Chinese as guguguan or Kazakh as saykele). Wood fragments which were apparently a part of the boqta frame were seen in the soil near the skull and micro-sized blue and white glass paste beads also began to be exposed. The beads began to emerge from the fill as soon as the soil was excavated with a small brush. These were removed with the attempt to keep them in order. This proved almost impossible due to their extremely small size. In addition, a piece of worked wood with a small fleck of red paint was also found close to the top of the skull. These wooden fragments appeared to proceed behind part of the skull on the right side. The wood fragments visible in the soil appeared to be parallel with the head and extended southward.

The area around the metal cylinder on the right side of the skull was carefully cleared of soil for the propose of photographing this grave good. During this clearing process, more wood was discovered in situ. It appeared to be a part of the larger headdress (boqta). While inconclusive, the wood at the base of the cylinder appeared to be birch bark. In addition, an attachment loop was seen connected to the metal cylinder presumably for the purpose of attaching the cylinder phylactery to the boqta. As the cylinder was revealed, a crack present prior to exposure was seen in the metal cylinder. The artifact seemed so fragile that it was determined not to extract the cylinder or to excavate any of the remains until the entire grave could be removed as a single block of soil to be examined carefully in a laboratory.

A metal detector scanned the entire locus. Metal was also detected in the grave on the north side of the skull away from the originally exposed copper cylinder but was not examined due to the decision to proceed no further with excavations. With neither the available manpower, equipment, nor time, such a complicated excavation will be necessary later. An altitude level was carefully taken with a total station next to the site of the cylinder and measured 596.702 m. asl.
Following photographs, the area around the skull and cylinder was carefully re-covered with soil. The grave pit was covered with Geotech fabric, more soil placed on the fabric, and the entire section of the revealed pit was overlaid with PVC pipe to protect the artifact and skull from the weight of the backfilled soil.

The piece of wood which dislodged on the southeast side of the skull had a triangular-shaped. The ends on two sides appeared to have some sort of inlaid red pigment or paint (ID #: Ib_21_C_IV_290_I001, see Cultural Materials Analysis section, p. 48, Fig. 9).

Locus 291
Grave

Based on the appearance of a gray brick in the soil in the northeast corner of U-15, 170 cm from the north baulk and 70 cm from the east baulk, a new locus was opened (L-291). It lay due north of L-290 (adult grave) by 220 cm and due south of the infant skull in L-286 by 60 cm. Opening photos and levels were taken with the initial measurement taken at the spot of the gray- colored mudbrick from the cleared level of L-276 at 597.475 m. asl.

Initial excavations attempted to find the boundaries of a suspected grave that appeared to possibly penetrate the east baulk of U-15. The area of the suspected grave with the large square- shaped mudbrick (12 x 12 cm) visible in the soil was lowered using shovels to a depth of 45 cm below the cleared surface of L-276. The dimensions of the excavation at this stage measured 85 (N/S) x 140 (E/W) cm.

After lowering the soil an additional 60 cm below the cleared surface (596.866 m. asl.) no feature or cultural material was found except for 2 small animal bones in the fill. Initially, it was thought that the area was devoid of any human remains. However, a final attempt was made to lower the locus further to see if remains were present at lower depths despite the failure to find bricks.

After a 3-5 cm pass in the soil with hand tools, a large, adult-sized cranium was discovered in the soil. The head was not raised, and the face was completely supine and immediately visible. The facial bones appeared to have a dark brown color. This discoloration was likely due to the body residing in either a wooden cover or coffin. The wood was clearly seen in a rectangular shape encompassing the skull to the west, south, and north. The body and grave obviously extended into the east baulk of U-15 and was on a similar parallel with the remains of L-290.

Photographs and levels were taken: Skull: 597.061 m. asl; NW corner of coffin/cover (?):
597.034 m. asl.; SW corner of coffin/cover(?) 597.006 m. asl. NE side of coffin/cover(?) near east baulk 597.060 m. asl.; SE side of coffin/cover(?) near baulk: 597.031 m. asl.

The metal detector was used to scan the entire locus and metal was detected around the parameters of the coffin/wood cover. While speculative, this may indicate the presence of coffin nails. Further excavation would be necessary to confirm this hypothesis. It is evident that the coffin/cover extended across the body and probably over the face as well since wood was observed at the head and on each side of the face immediately next to the skull.

The distance between the skull in L-291 and the skull in L-290 is 230 cm. They are almost exactly parallel with each other suggesting an orderly interment as has been seen in other locations of the cemetery in Area C.

Excavators attempted to fully delineate the coffin/cover as much as possible to reveal the wooden planks that extended along the sides of the revealed skull which proceeded into the east baulk as well as the planks placed north and south across the unrevealed torso. The wood was obviously very deteriorated and difficult to delineate from the soil. An attempt was made to dig along the sides of the wooden cover/coffin to determine if this was a coffin or a wooden cover. Nothing indicated that the wood extended below the bones. However, this was not definitive since the grave was not fully excavated. Because this grave extended into the east baulk of U-15 and time was limited, it was determined not to remove the remains or excavate any further until a more opportune time, presumably next season.

It should also be noted that L-291 is the second grave found in the Area C with a wooden cover/coffin. In 2019, the remains of L-131 (U-7A) also contained such a cover. Initial field forensics identified these remains as from a possible middle adult female. No nails or metal fasteners were discovered in conjunction with that grave (See 2019 Field Report, pp. 35-36, 38; 185-86).

The east baulk of U-15, following a rain, revealed an initial cut for the grave in L-291 on the south of the grave pit. This suggests a possible niche-type burial. Within the baulk, it appeared that the soil extended downward in the interment chamber, suggesting a soil collapse. The question remains as to whether this might indicate the apparent collapse happened when wood from the possible coffin collapsed under the weight of the soil. Only further excavation could answer this question.

The face of the cranium is all that was revealed of the human remains. Initial observations suggest the sex of the interred was male based on the very pronounced brow and large rectangular- shaped orbits. No lower mandible was exposed, but the upper maxilla had no teeth. One disarticulated tooth was discovered in the fill. The soil was sifted with only one small bone fragment found along with wood fragments from the coffin/cover. Initial observations suggest that this male was possibly over 50 years at time of death.

Final levels and photographs were taken: Skull: 597.006 m. asl.; SE side of wood coffin/cover: 597.000 m. asl; NE side of wood coffin/cover: 597.021 m. asl. The entirety of the excavated locus was covered with Geotech fabric and backfilled.

Locus 293
Possible Grave

In the southwest side of U-15 at the cleared level of L-276 and slightly to the north of L-278 (infant’s grave) a possible grave pit measuring 200 E/W x 100 N/S cm appeared in the soil. The ability to see this possible grave was enhanced due to rain from the previous day. The feature had an oblong shape in the soil with an east-west orientation. A new locus was opened. Photographs and levels were taken: W: 597.617 m. asl; C: 597.595 m. asl.; E: 597.609 m. asl. No excavations were undertaken as this feature was discovered on the last day of field excavations. It may demonstrate that the infant burial of L-278 was placed above this grave probably at a later date.

In the northern baulk the topsoil/backfill is clearly seen. Additionally, plow furrows appear at the 6, 8 and 11.5 m meter marks. Near L-279, in the northwest side of the north baulk, brown- colored soil appears from 50 cm to the 2.5 m mark in a west-to-east direction. Some gray fill due east of this feature may be present.
In the southern baulk, a mudbrick is present at the 10.80 m mark (going from west to east). This brick is within the cultural layer and appeared to be in association with the darker gray soil. Also, between the 11.40 m and 12.00 m mark, brown soil was seen to cut into this gray soil from the base of the baulk which may indicate a possible grave (?).

At the 5 m mark and the 5.1 m mark, two small mudbricks, (5 cm in diameter) appear in the baulk. These appear in the vicinity of L-278 (infant grave) and may be associated with that grave. At the 80 cm mark the topsoil/backfill disappears, thus the exposed surface to the end of the 20 cm mark is part of the previous cultural layer. At the 20 cm mark running along the remaining length of the baulk toward the west, the soil is slightly darker.

In the eastern baulk, the topsoil was also easily seen. From the 9.3 m mark (N to S) to the
10.1 m mark, there is an 8 – 10 cm wide dark spot (ash?) that lies just under the topsoil layer. At the 10.1 m mark (at the beginning of the soil removal ramp) an oblong gray feature appeared in the fill of the baulk. To the north and 4 cm lower a “floating” brick is seen. At the 9.30 m mark. Between the 8.8 m – 9.2 m mark, a thin (3-4 cm) line of this same gray color could be seen. This may indicate a grave.

Cultural Material Analysis

This section will provide an expanded analysis of what the team considers to be finds of significance. This review highlights those cultural finds which contribute to the overall context of the site and provides an emphasis for subsequent researchers for comparative purposes and could possibly assist in a greater understanding of both the context of Ilibalyk as well as the greater Central Asian context.

Analytical Description of Kayrak (Gravestone) Found during 2021 Season

As detailed in the Unit and Loci Descriptions, this kayrak (gravestone, ID: Ib_17_IV_В_3_I009, pp. 18-19, Fig. 4 below) was discovered during excavations in Unit 13, in the disturbed topsoil layer designated Locus 262. It is the 39th gravestone discovered in cemetery of Ilibalyk and it was found in Locus 263. (See description below and in Artifact Collection Appendix D, p. 171). The cross inscription’s iconography is described below.

Analysis of the Cross Typology of Kayrak
(Charles A. Stewart)

Unfortunately, the kayrak is missing its lower third. Because the cutline is straight and even, we surmise that it was cut by heavy machinery like a plow, perhaps, during the time when the field served as a Soviet collective farm. We should not assume that the findspot was the original location where it was placed by the generation which carved it. Nevertheless, it is within the cemetery boundaries.

The artisans chose the stone for its size and naturally flat surface. The cross was carved as a sunken relief, delineating the shape as well as providing a rougher interior texture, allowing the cross to be seen apart from the natural surface, especially in raking light. The cross’ top vertical arm and the two horizontal arms terminate in concaved flared ends—like some of the other kayraks discovered at Usharal-Ilibalyk. The lower vertical arm tapers (i.e. a gradually reducing width) which is unique to this particular kayrak.

Because the lower portion is missing, we cannot be completely sure of the typology.
Nevertheless, we suggest there are two possibilities ways to reconstruct the cross. First, the taper could merely be an aberration, and the lower part of the cross also had a flared end like the other arms (Fig. 6a). If so, this should be considered a so-called Bolnisi Cross, “latinized” so that the lower vertical arm is longer than the horizontal arms (also known as the Cross of St. John in western medieval heraldry). The second possibility is that the taper continued down to a point; if so, this should be considered a croix fichée (or, in English, a “cross fitchy”) (Fig. 6b).

If, indeed, this is a cross fitchy design then it is a significant addition to the Semirechye Corpus. The earliest use of the croix fichée can be traced to the Carolingian period, particularly, on a rare coin of the French king Louis IV; it continued to be used in the next two centuries in heraldry, including in Palestine during the Crusades. For example, an icon—most likely painted on the island of Cyprus—shows St. Marina of Antioch who carries a dagger in the form of a cross fitchy (Fig. 7). According to legend, Marina was swallowed by a dragon and used her dagger, shaped like a cross, to cut her way out (de Voragine 1993, 368-70). The variety of cross types at Usharal-Ilibalyk signify how western cross typology influenced the carvers. While we cannot be certain of the means of transmission—such as through illuminated books, textiles, or eye-witness observation through travel—it does underscore how Usharal-Ilibalyk was a center of both material and cultural exchange.

                    
Fig. 4. Kayrak (L-263) as found in field  


Fig. 5. Kayrak following cleaning

Fig. 6. Hypothetical reconstruction of the Kayrak’s cross typology; a. Bolnisi Cross; b. Cross Fitchy. (C. A. Stewart)

Other Significant Cultural Material Finds

Beads, Wood Fragments, and Metal Cylinder from Probable Boqta Headdress (L-290)

In Locus 290, which was a grave in Unit 15 on the eastern side of Area C, what are the probable remains of a Mongolian-era boqta headdress was found to the south and west of a skull in the discovered in the grave. Because this grave extended into the eastern baulk of the excavation unit and due to a lack of time, a full excavation was impossible and will have to wait for a future excavation. (For a full description of the locus see Unit and Loci Summaries section, pp. 40-43).

 
Fig 8. Beads from Locus 290, from boqta headdress

While clearing soil from around the skull, the very small glass paste beads (Fig. 8) were revealed. All the beads, approximately 20 in number, were white in color except for at least three blue beads, two of which were significantly worn and faded. Another of the beads was fragmented and had a rectangular shape and measured 7 mm in length and 4 mm in width. All the beads ranged in size between 1 mm and 3 mm in size. Due to their fragile condition, none of the beads were cleaned at the field lab, therefore, a color analysis is incomplete. Based on what is known of boqtas, these beads were probably embroidered onto the tall section of the headdress in a specific pattern.



Fig. 9. Wood fragment (superior and anterior view) from boqta headdress, Locus 290

In the same location as the beads, a small, shaped wood fragment measuring 2.64 x 0.88 x
0.72 cm (Fig. 9) was also discovered. The exact type of wood has yet to be determined, however, speculation is that it is birch wood based on what is known about other boqta headdresses. The wood is triangular with a rounded edge on one side and a notched edge on the other. The bottom of the notched edge has a dark, brown color and may have been connected to another piece of the headdress at one point. The other edge contains some type of red pigment on each terminal end. Further analysis will be necessary to determine the exact composition of the red pigment.

The boqta (or bocca) type headdress originated in Mongolia, at least by the end of the 12th century, and its use soon spread to areas where the Mongols had conquered. It was basically a bonnet, tied under the chin with a string or ribbon, surmounted by tall cylindrical drum, upon which rested an inverted trapezoidal box; however, its specific shape, decoration, and detailing could vary widely depending on the preferences of the wearer. Based on historical descriptions and archaeological remains, a variety of materials could have been used to craft them, such as wood (bamboo, mulberry, birch, etc.), cover them (muslin, felt or silk), and decorate them (pearls, coral, beads, jade, gold, feathers, etc.) (Pozdnyakov, et. al, 74-82).

A variety of foreign historical sources describe the boqta, which emphasizes its uniqueness to Mongol culture as well as its conspicuousness. In 1219, the Chinese Taoist monk Qiu Chuji— just before passing through the cities of Almalyk and Balasagun—described the hat of Mongol women:

The married women wear a head-dress of birch-bark, some two feet high. This they generally cover with a black woolen stuff, but some of the richer women use red silk. The end [or top] (of this head-dress) is like a duck; they call it ku-ku. They are in constant fear of people knocking against it, and are obliged to go backwards and crouching through the doorways of their tents. (Li Chih-Ch'ang , 67).

Here, Qiu Chuji is repeating the Mongol word gu-gu, which is the generic term for “hat.” Likewise, this is the same word that Chao Hung uses also to designate the hat in 1221; Chao Hung was a Chinese diplomat of the Sung dynasty who wrote a lengthy account of his visit with the Mongols. He further remarked that only the wives of the local rulers wore the boqta, not just any aristocratic or wealthy lady (Pelliot, 156; Munkueva; Olbricht et. al., 79, 119). By the year 1255, William of Rubruck, made this detailed and accurate description:

In addition, they [the Mongols] have a head-dress called a bocca and made of tree bark or some lighter material if they can find it. It is thick and round, two hands in circumference and one cubit or more high, and square at the top like the capital of a column. They cover this bocca with expensive silk cloth; it is hollow inside, and on the capital in the middle, or on the square part, they put a sheaf of quills or of thin reeds, again a cubit or more in length. And they decorate this sheaf at the top with peacock’s feathers and around its shaft with the little feathers from a mallard’s tail and even precious stones. This decoration is worn on top of the head by rich ladies: they fasten it on securely with a fur hood which has a hole at the top made for this purpose, and in it they put up their hair, gathering it from the back onto the top of the head in a kind of knot and placing over it the bocca, which is then tied firmly at the throat. Consequently, when a number of ladies together are out riding and are seen from a distance, they resemble knights with helmets on their heads and raised lances: for this bocca looks like a helmet and the sheaf [protruding] above like a lance (quoted in Jackson and Morgan, 88-89).

Note that William interprets these hats as a sign of wealth and status within the aristocracy, following the identification made by Chao Hung. As such, given the orientation of the burial within the cemetery, is appears that the woman buried here was a member of the local elite who practiced the Christian faith.

Immediately next to the skull in L-290 on the south side near the right temporal lobe, a metal cylinder probably composed of cooper or bronze was noted (Fig. 10-11). The entirety of the cylinder could not be exposed. However, the exposed length measured approximately 5 cm with a diameter of 20 mm. The exposed cylinder also contained what appeared to be an attachment loop which is characteristic of other boqtas. The cylinder extended downward into the soil and into appeared to be in direct contact with possible birch wood. The dorsal end of the cylinder appeared to have decorative features. These included 2 narrow beaded bands on either side of 3 rows of larger “beads” or raised circular reliefs. The cylinder appeared to be damaged prior to exposure with a large crack from corrosion seen on the western side of the cylinder and extending around its circumference. It is speculated that this cylinder is a type of phylactery box that was attached to the upper section of the boqta. Plans for this artifact include taking the entire grave out as a block and conducting careful excavations in a laboratory.


Fig. 10. Boqta phylactery cylinder on the southern (right) side of parietal lobe of female skull in L-290. Note the wood bark (birch?) immediately south of the cylinder. Photo: Maolin Abdikalyk

Fig. 11. Boqta phylactery cylinder (view from south) showing decorative feature. (Photo: Maylen Abdikalyk).

Metal Pipe with Manuscript Fragment

While excavators were clearing the soil in U-15 of Area C, in the designated level of Locus 276, a metal smoking pipe (Ib_21_C_IV_276_I001) was discovered in the soil fill at coordinates 44T 410216 4887038 UTM, and a depth of 597.702 m. asl. (Fig. 12) The pipe’s stem is 8.24 x
3.32 x 1.17 cm long. The pipe’s bowl is 2.21 cm in diameter. It is made from a bronze/copper alloy. The pipe has a long crack along the dorsal side of the pipe’s stem. Green corrosion (patina) is seen throughout the pipe, indicating copper content. The bowl appears to have some sort of residue, possibly remains from whatever substance was smoked in the pipe. A small gash or nick is seen along one side of the pipe from the excavator’s tool prior to discovery.

Within the pipe stem, a small fragment of either wool or parchment (?) was discovered by the worker who found the pipe as the fragment fell out following discovery. Immediately, it was recognized that the fragment, with a dark brown color, contained writing in black ink. The fragment measures 82.66 x 17.5 mm and weighs 0.14 g. It has a slight curvature, and the center appears to have evidence of some sort of binding, in which the fragment may be two conjoined pieces, though this is a preliminary conclusion. The fragment was so light (weighing 0.14 g.) and fragile that it was determined not to take a picture of it in the field, but to immediately protect it from the elements.

Fig. 12. Metal pipe (opium pipe?) and accompanying material fragment with writing

Initial investigations did reveal that this fragment contained writing on one side (what we will designate as the obverse side). In total, there appear to be 9 stylus markings on the obverse. Proceeding in a left-to-right direction, there is a wedge-shaped jot in the upper left corner followed by two other successive strokes. The fourth marking reveals what appears to be a curved marking, one U-shaped with a left-facing curve underneath, and a line with a reversed U. The fifth marking is best characterized as a very distinct pretzel-shaped design, with an extended line going to the right. This extends continuously to the sixth mark which rises upward in a reverse zigzag. Another dot (seventh mark) is seen just below the extended line from the pretzel shape. Further to the right are two final u-shaped markings one slightly above the other. The top marking is thicker with everted “rims”, the other is less uniform in shape.

The reverse appeared to have no visible writing, although certain sections appear to have black splotches which could be writing. Only laboratory analysis could conclude whether these dark spots are ink. The overall fragment has many wrinkles, but the item was too fragile to easily smooth it out.

Both Dr. Mark Dickens and Dr. Peter Zieme were able to examine photographs of the fragment. Their initial analysis enabled them to only determine that the one distinct “pretzel- shaped” letter is most certainly an example of Old Uighur (See Figs. 13-14). In fact, this shape is a ligature of the letters pe and waw (Fig. 15-16). The other letters (and or diacritic markings) were less discernable, and Dr. Zieme stated that it was possible to potentially see letters the letters as č(?)l(?)pw/y. The fragment could be indicating someone’s name. Both scholars believe that this is an example of Old Uighur writing which was utilized in the area ranging between the 9th through 16th centuries.(5)

(5) E-mail correspondence, Mark Dickens, Peter Zieme, October 14, 2021.

Fig. 13. Material manuscript fragment with visible letters (obverse)



Fig. 14. Material manuscript fragment photographically enhanced (obverse) (Charles A. Stewart)

Fig. 15. Detail from Christian Uyghur fragment So14000, a fragment of the Legend of Paul and Thecla, from the Berlin Turfan Collection, Copyright Fotostelle Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz

Fig. 16. Unique Uyghur ligature that combines the letters pe and waw.

                       
Following the photography process, the fragment was carefully placed behind two pieces of polymethyl methacrylate sheets (plexiglass) which was then sealed with strong adhesive tape to prevent exposure to air. This was then covered with dark paper to prevent exposure to light. This fragment and its host, the pipe, raises many questions and possibilities. Some answers can perhaps be revealed with more laboratory analysis. The pipe’s interior residue, if tested in a laboratory, may show that it was used for smoking opium.

The use of metal pipes for smoking opium became widespread by the 17th century in eastern Asia. We cannot be certain, however, of the development of opium paraphernalia in earlier times since it was a taboo subject among Islamic writers and historians. Our first impression is that this pipe comes from the 17th century or later. If so, this coincides with the Chinese fortress that existed approximately a kilometer due west of Area C at Ilibalyk. This site dates between the 17th to 19th centuries when the Chinese Qing dynasty exercised hegemony over this site along the trade route that passed just to the north of both sites for centuries. Opium would also testify to the known period in which this substance was used extensively among the Chinese population, culminating in the nineteenth century Opium Wars. If this dating concerning the pipe is accurate, then the text is probably older than the pipe. The fragment’s fabric (or parchment) might have been used by its owner as kindling that he/she discovered in the area. When the pipe was seen to have a crack, perhaps it was then discarded around the Ilibalyk cemetery.


Fig. 17. Headache Treatment in Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu’s Cerrahiyyetu'l-Haniyye
[Imperial Surgery] 1465. MS. No. 3229, Istanbul, Suleymaniye Library, Ayasofya Section

With that said, the pipe may date to an earlier period. The use of opium dates to prehistoric times and was continually used in Central Asia into modern times (Schiff, 186-194; Kritikos,17- 38; Salavert, 1-11). The earliest archaeological evidence of smoking opium comes from the island of Cyprus where a ceramic pipe was excavated in a Bronze Age Phoenician temple. While the historical and archaeological record is not well studied in Islamic contexts, there is sufficient evidence that poppy was cultivated commercially, and opium produced during the Middle Ages in Central Asia (Karageorghis, 125-129; Smith, et. al, Baasher, 233-243). The notable Turkic surgeon Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu suggested the use of opium as a type of anesthesia by the mid-15th century; illustrations in his book may be showing the use of a pipe for both inhaling smoke and skin cauterization (Fig. 17) (Ganidagli, 165-169; Sunger, 10-12).

The style and construction of the Usharal-Ilibalyk pipe is reminiscent of the so-called “opium pipe” discovered by Aurel Stein at the ancient site of So-yang-cheng (near modern Suoyang City, China) (Fig. 18). Stein noted:

Fragment of an iron opium pipe (?). Short curved piece of tubing, broken and split at one end; near the other widened into bowl double the width of stem and finished off (Stein 1921, 1106).

Stein assumed that this artifact came from the same cultural layer as the Tang and Sung Dynasty artifacts that he recovered. If Stein was correct, then it is possible that the pipe and manuscript fragment are, in fact, somewhat contemporary with each other.

Fig. 18. Opium-pipe [?] from So-yang-cheng (China), excavated by Aurel Stein. British Museum, London (UK), Inv. no. MAS.959. [from: https: //www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_MAS-959]

Coin Find (L-270; ID: Ib_21_C_IV_270-I001)

This coin (Fig. 19) was discovered during excavations in an area of darkened soil located in Area C, U-13, located south of the funerary chapel in U-12. Excavators revealed it in an area of burning with pottery and animal bone, thus it was found in a seal layer, in situ. The coin has very defined edges and was in good condition. Originally it was covered with a dark greenish-black patina and measured 10 mm in diameter. It was classified as a special find and photographed in situ and levels were taken: 597.102 m. asl, coordinates: 44T 410201 4886986 UTM. This coin appears to be contemporary with the structure in U-12 and the whole site in general. The coin weighed 1.71 g. and was well fired and struck.

Upon later cleaning and examination (Fig. 20), the numismatist expert, P.N. Petrov determined that the coin was a silver dirham from Almalyk dated to 689 A.H./1310 A.D., and in circulation for 7-10 years from the time of minting thus providing a terminus post quem of generally between 1310-1320 AD.(6)

(6)Email correspondence with authors, October 22, 2021.

This provides the first in situ coin found during excavations that can be read and dated. Previous finds have either been on the surface with no verified provenance or have proven unreadable and too corroded. The early 14th century date is the first absolute date for the Christian cemetery at Ilibalyk and corresponds with the radiocarbon dating results from previous seasons (see Chronology section, p 74ff).

This coin will also provide additional information related to Petrov’s hypothesis that Ilibalyk was the site of a regional mint. His thesis is based on the previous coin hordes that have been discovered at the site, specifically the number of unique, single finds:

Since the largest number of the single finds of the silver dirhams under investigation was discovered on the site of Ilibalyk, it was here that the mint for their coinage was located during the early 13th century [Petrov’s emphasis]. This postulate will be valid until a medieval settlement with single finds (not included in a hoard) of exactly this type of coin in significantly larger quantities has been discovered. These singular finds on settlement sites determine the usage of a particular coin in circulation. (Petrov, 2021, 114) (see also Petrov 2014, 61-76).
While this coin does not appear to have been specifically minted at Ilibalyk, if Petrov’s hypothesis is correct, then Ilibalyk’s status as a city and its significant fortifications have a legitimate context. A mint on site would require a secure setting. A mint on site would also show that regionally the city played a role in the political life of the Chagatay khanate.

This coin also provides the first genuine historical context for the Christians of Ilibalyk. The decade that this coin was in circulation was a period (as the case for most of the Chagatay khanate) of political turmoil. The powerful Kaidu (1236-1301) had established the ulus of Ögödeid as suzerain over the Chagataid khanate for the 30 years until his death from battle at the hands of his Yuan cousins at the turn of the 14th century. Dua, son of Baraq, in the Chagataid line was initially Kaidu’s puppet and placed as on the throne of the khanate; but eventually his power grew to the point that the two rulers formed a tentative alliance in holding off Kublai’s domination of the region, particularly embroiling Uighuristan and Zhetisu in a state of war during the entire period of Kaidu’s lifetime (Baumer 2016, History, 240-46). To date, our team at Ilibalyk has not uncovered specific evidence of the effect of this period on the city itself which many textbooks call the Pax Mongolica in reference to the Empire in its entirety. Yet, political and military turmoil was more the rule than the exception for the Chagatay khanate.

Twelve years prior to the striking of our coin, Dua himself in 1298, had captured and killed Kublai’s brother-in-law, the Ongut Christian king, Körgüz. This causes one to pause and wonder what the reaction Ilibalyk’s Christians had to such developments. Upon Kaidu’s death, Dua then exerted a power play to remove Kaidu’s sons through both violence and intrigue, eventually placing Yanchichar (1307-1310) as his own puppet. Dua might have annihilated the Ögödieds had he not died in 1307. This led to further turmoil with a succession struggles by Dua’s sons and other contenders, including the first Muslim khan on the scene, Nalighu, who ruled for a year (1307- 1308) and attempted to force the Chagatay ruling elite to embrace Islam. Eventually, Dua’s son, Kebek took power, which was then handed to his older brother Esen Buqa and then back to Kebek following the former’s death in 1319.

Thus, the decade between 1310-1320 marked a precipitated decline in the region due in large part to the political conflict and continual warfare which resulted in damage to the region economically and agriculturally (Baumer 2016, History, 246). This instability also had a distinct religious element. Ruling factions appeared to divide based on religious affiliation and a battle between Islam and traditional Mongolian Tengrism; sharia and yasa; steppe pastoralism and urban agrarian society (Millward 2009, 261-62). Christians in the region likely favored the more tolerant position of traditional steppe religion and culture, as it provided them a level of religious freedom and because of the status Christianity had been provided to the ruling elite of the previous century, including many of the khan’s Keirait wives beginning with Chinggis’ sons (Weatherford, 2016, 102-116).

Yet, for the next three decades from the time of our coin, the Christians’ position in the region became more and more precarious. The last of Dua’s sons, Tamashirin (r. 1331-1334) converted to Islam, but, he too, was violently opposed and removed by Chagatay traditionalists. Tamashirin was followed by Changshi (r. 1335-37) who ruling from Almalyk probably had the support of Ilibalyk’s Christians since his wife Alma Khatun (see pp. 99-100) was the best-known Nestorian Christian of elite status during this period in Zhetisu (Semirechye) (Baumer 2016, 246). The emotional pendulum took another radical swing in the other direction when Changshi was murdered by his brother Yesün Temür which was immediately followed by the outbreak of plague that certainly struck the Issyk-kul region and may have affected the residents of Ilibalyk, though this is yet to be confirmed.

In 1340, an Ögödied, Ali Sultan, seized power and was responsible for the severe persecution and martyrdoms of 6 people at the Catholic mission in Almalyk (DeWeese 2009, 130-31).7 Since our coin confirms that the funerary chapel and cemetery were in operation at the dawn of this tumultuous period, our further dating evidence provided by radiocarbon (C-14) samples also means the community of Christians at Ilibalyk could have also been put in a very difficult position. As our previous year’s report states (2020 Field Report, p. 74.), evidence of burning may demonstrate that the chapel was destroyed by fire and the latest dating from the graves falls within this period’s window.

Special Pottery Finds

Area C continues to yield fine ware pottery fragments on occasion. While the cemetery itself usually has less pottery than in locations of domestic occupation as excavated in 2016; pottery finds in the cemetery are mainly from a scatter of common ware which predominately come from the temper in mudbrick (see Fig. 51, p. 98). Additional pottery from cookware may be indicative of funerary meals held at various gravesides.

However, particularly from excavations in Unit 12 in 2020 inside and in the vicinity of the funerary chapel, fine ware was discovered that included imports from possible locations such as Iran and Syria and/or China (2020 Field Report, 69). This provides evidence for the importance and high status of the structure discovered in U-12, that included not only fine ware dishes (including archaeologically whole vessels); but also, oil lamps with possible Christian iconography as well as an icon lamp or sensor found in the possible altar area of the structure (2020 Field Report, 55-70).

Within Unit 13, due south of U-12 and the funerary chapel, this location yielded less fine ware, although the middens of L-222 and L-223 (still within the boundaries of U-12 and south of the structure) did yield fine ware in the upper levels). Unit 14, on the western boundary of the cemetery, fine ware pieces were discovered, most of which will be detailed in this section.

Celadon Bowl with Floral Designs

These two fragments (Figs. 21-22) from a very fine light-blue glazed celadon bowl with intricate underglaze designs were discovered in Unit 14, Locus 266, or the upper layer near the western boundary of the cemetery (Ib_21_C_IV_266_I002; Ib_21_C_IV_266_I004).

Fig. 21. Sidewall from a blue celadon bowl   



Fig. 22. Fragment with base from a blue celadon bowl

See John of Marignolli’s account in Cathay and the Way Thither, translated by H. Yule (London: Hakluyt Society): vol. 2, pg. 338.

While these particular fragments were found to the northwest of the funerary chapel in U- 12, they come from the exact same bowl as three fragments discovered in 2020 in U-12 found, approximately 25 meters from each other (Fig. 23; see 2020 Field Report, 69,173,175,177). This is verified by the base fragment discovered in 2020 (Ib_20_C_IV_212_I001) co-joined with the base fragment discovered this season in U-14, L-266 (Fig. 24). The intricately inscribed floral design on the inner side of the bowl are a combination of floral patterns and combed swirls prior to firing. The fabric is perfectly white with no inclusions and appears to have utilized kaolin clay. The outer sides of the fragments have the same light-blue glaze, but with no design. Age and wear have created micro cracks on the outer side of the bowl’s surface. Fragment Ib_21_C_IV_266_I004 includes half of a ring base, the outer part has the same glazed coating, but the bottom of the ring is unglazed and has a red tint. This base’s measurements are 4.62 X 4.75 cm in diameter and is 2.22 cm thick, weighing 57.27 g. Three floral petals are visible on the sherd (one complete, the other two partial) with two intersecting combing designs at the petals’ bases. When combined with the base discovered in 2020, the base’s diameter is clearly measured at 5.5 cm, thus the circumference of the entire base was 11 cm.

The other fragment (Ib_21_C_IV_266_I002, Fig 21), is a sidewall measuring 5.26 X 4.21 and 1.34 cm thick. This sherd’s light blue glaze is on both sides and micro-cracks can be seen on the outer side. The inner side’s design is in the same style with petals and a circular combing design with a comb of 11 teeth and no micro-cracks are visible in the glaze on the inner surface. This fragment was probably near the bowl’s rim as indicated by its tapered shape and thinner wall.

Fig. 23. Three blue celadon fragments from 2020 dig discovered in U-12, L-212 from the same vessel as fragments found in 2021

Fig. 24. Two sherds from ring base of blue celadon bowl (front and back), sherd on left was discovered in 2021, sherd on right in 2020, separated by 25 m (SE to NW)

Gray Ware Decorative Pottery

Pottery with a gray fabric is a common typology at Ilibalyk. This includes slipped and unslipped forms as well as examples with decorative features, as these two potsherds demonstrate (Figs. 25-26). The potsherd seen on the right (Ib_21_C_IV_273_I001; Fig. 26) has two designs probably made by roller stamping, one a quatrefoil design and the other a piriform with an inner circle at bottom middle of “pear-shape” or possibly representing the pistil of a flower. Between these different shapes are three rivets (conical shaped molded relief adhesions). This sherd was discovered in a sealed layer in the lower level of a sondage (L-273; 596.685 m asl.) attributed possibly to the 11th century during the Karakhanid period (see Locus 273 Sondage and Pottery Analysis section, p. 69ff).

The other potsherd, on the left (Fig. 25), has a banded design a few centimeters below the vessel’s rim with three raised ridges and stamped 9-petaled rosette or star impressions probably on the entire lower half of the vessel. On this sherd, three compete and two partial impressions are visible. This vessel is probably from a more recent period (early 14th century), given the location of the find in Unit 14, L-266 (597.266 m asl.), however, the layer is within the modern plow zone and within the area of the cleared topsoil from the 2017 dig, so exact provenance is uncertain.

    
Fig. 25. Gray-ware potsherd, U-14, L-266


Fig. 26. Gray-ware potsherd, U-14, L-273

If our estimation on the chronology of these potsherds is correct, then gray-ware pottery was utilized throughout the life of the site at Ilibalyk, however, design variations may be a possible diagnostic indicator in determining a time period. A review of previous finds is needed to see if there is a consistent pattern of these design differences.

Fineware pottery with Cream-Colored Slip, Transparent Glaze, and Painted Underglaze Design

This potsherd (Fig. 27) was discovered in Unit 14, Locus 266, the initial level for the unit and the western boundary of the cemetery. It was discovered in the level of the plowzone (597.377 m asl.) but was only one centimeter higher than the blue glazed celadon ware discovered in the same area. The sherd was a rim from a bowl and measures 2.25 X 2.31 and is 0.49 cm with a well- variegated brown fabric. It is covered with a cream-colored slip that is highly worn on the upper part of the sherd and covered with a transparent glaze. The sherd’s inner side is decorated with a series of painted, reddish-brown lines (possibly iron oxide?) beginning approximately one centimeter below the rim’s lip. One horizontal line, which probably extended around the bowls entire circumference runs parallel to the rim. Four other lines are visible on the sherd underneath the upper line, two running vertically, the other intersecting with the middle line. These lines may form a geometric design that encircled the bowl, or it could be some form of writing or sgraffito.

      
Fig. 27. Pottery rim (inner and outer sides) from U-14, L-266, painted underglaze design

This pottery type has never been found at the Ilibalyk site and further study is needed to determine other comparisons throughout Central Asia. It can be categorized as decorative fine ware.

Porcelain Fine Ware

Small fragments of very fine porcelain have been discovered during every archaeological expedition at Ilibalyk since 2016 and this year proved no exception. This very small pottery fragment (Fig. 28) with a deep blue glaze on one side and white on the other has a very fine white, kaolin clay fabric which continues to testify to the presence of fine ware pottery imports. This piece is reminiscent of Yuan dynasty blue and white porcelain whose whole forms today are considered quite valuable. This sherd was discovered in Unit 15, Locus 276, the initial level on the furthermost eastern part of the cemetery in Area C that has been excavated so far and in the same vicinity as the high-status grave of Mongolian female in L-290, however, their association cannot be determined.




Fig 28. Fine ware porcelain sidewall fragment, U-15, L-276

Blue-Glazed Fine Ware with Light Blue Designs

This pottery fragment (Ib_21_C_IV_262_I001; 3.04 X 3.42 X 1.34 cm, Fig. 29) was discovered in Unit 13, Locus 262 near the same level as a fragment which is probably from the same vessel (Fig. 30). This dish or bowl has a dark blue glaze with bold turquoise lines on top of

a red, well-variegated fabric with very minor inclusions. This fine dish or plate was probably connected with the funerary chapel (U-12, L-212) as the other discovered sherd from 2020 was found within the structure itself in the possible altar area indicating its high status and value.

Fig 29. Potsherd U-13, L-262, 2021   



Fig 30. Potsherd U-12, L-212, 2020

Cowrie Shell

This cowrie shell (Ib_21_C_IV_280_I001, Fig 31 below) was discovered during clearing operations in Unit 14, Locus 280 in the soil due south and immediately next to a child’s skull in this locus. While the grave remained unexcavated (see Unit and Loci Descriptions, pp. 31-32), the shell, (likely an import from the Indian Ocean) was found in the probable location of the child’s upper thoracic/cervical vertebrae. It measured 1.53 X 1.13 X 0.72 cm and is likely from the genus C. moneta.

As its scientific name indicates, such shells were often used as currency throughout Asia and beyond, and particularly within China even as late as the Mongol period (Bin, 1-25).

This is the fourth cowrie shell discovered in the cemetery of Area C and all of them appear to be in conjunction with sub-adult, infant burials. They also appear to have been worn as some sort of necklace as a possible charm (See Field Report, 2018, pp. 39, 60, 79; Ib_18_C_IV_048_I001). An infant’s grave in L-048 had a cowrie shell in the cervical along with a mother-of-pearl (nacre) bead. Two area cowries were discovered in 2019 in Locus 188, also in conjunction with an unexcavated infant’s grave (see 2019 Field Report, pp. 101-102, 219-220; 228-229, 249; Ib_19_C_IV_188_I001/I002).8 All the shells have a drill hole on the dorsal side which provided the shell to be worn around the neck.

 
Fig. 31. Cowrie shell from infant grave (L-280) in situ (left) and in lab

Given that these shells have only been discovered in children’s graves, one may speculate that they served as some sort of apotropaic function. Such appears to have been the case across millennia and cultures including Greco-Roman culture during Antiquity (Carroll 2018). A more specific question for the context at Ilibalyk involves their usage among Christians and whether such a practice was widely accepted or something that was frowned upon, as was the case as early as the 4th century at the Synod of Laodicea in Roman Christian context in which adherents were prohibited from wearing amulets and priests were banned from making them, which probably indicates that such practices were widespread at the time and as is testified in the archaeological record (Cline 2019, 354). Given the high infant mortality rate based on the large number infant and child burials (over 50% of all burials excavated to date), the use of amulets to ward off the unknown and mysterious illness that produced such widespread mortality among the children of the community; parents would probably use all manner of perceived protection for their cherished offspring. Also, the depth of Turko-Mongolian Christian theology during the period and the amount of syncretism in the Christian community is still one of scholarly debate (Baumer 2016, Church of the East, 187-194).

Metal Objects

Three iron objects and their fragments were discovered during 2021 excavations. Iron fragments in and around the site have been revealed regularly over the course of excavations at Ilibalyk, some of which have deteriorated beyond recognition. In a few cases, one or two arrow heads have been found, but this has been rare. This may be attributed to the fact that most of our excavations have been in the cemetery. No weapons of any sort have ever been found as grave goods within the cemetery. Most of the metal objects (including coins) discovered have been via metal detecting as surface finds with no specific provenance. Major exceptions include a metal cross (ID: Ib_19_C_IV_001_I025_50; see 2019 Field Report, p. 228, 301, 318) discovered in 2019 which is now known to be in association with Locus 185 where a kayrak (L-234, ID: Ib_20_С_IV_234) was discovered and part of the funerary chapel structure in U-12 (see 2020 report, p. 13 20-21 52); and, the following year (2020) a metal icon lamp or thurible was discovered within the funerary chapel’s possible altar room (ID: Ib_20_С_IV_212_I005, see 2020 Field Report, pp. 53-54, 128). The 2021 excavations revealed 3 metal items of significance which are detailed below.

why the fragment was at the bottom of a posthole. A scan with a metal detector in the area found no other metal objects.

Cast Iron Fragment

Fig. 43. Cross-sectional baulk drawings of L-273

The initial level of the cleared soil of U-13 in which L-273 is located ranged from 597.19 to
597.10 m. asl. based on the undulation of the natural terrain. We have interpreted this range of level as the level of occupation for the entire area (see 2020 Field Report, pp. 74-76). It is also contemporary with the structure (funerary chapel) of U-12 in Area C. Thus, it seems logical that this area of cultural material scattered on this level was contemporary with the chapel.

The largest amount of ceramic and animal bones were discovered within the next 25-30 cm below the cleared surface (169 pottery fragments and 157 animal bone fragments) and continued to a somewhat lesser extent to 40 cm below the cleared surface (24 pottery fragments/ 99 animal bones). At the 25-30 cm mark the so-called “detrital layer” was identified. As we have written previously, this layer is a 1 to 3 cm layer characterized by a darker brown, crumbly soil with calcium aggregates. This layer is assumed to have been a ground surface that was once exposed to the sunlight and covered with plant life. Since cultural material was found below this “detrital layer” it might be assumed that the layer was caused by later cultivation or tillage, or perhaps some natural event that rapidly covered the soil, such as a flood. Since this area lies between two small streams that flank the cemetery to the east and west, such an interpretation is feasible.

Since we have observed grave shafts in the cemetery that cut into this “detrital” surface, we are assuming that the interments at the cemetery took place following a phase of organic growth that may have existed on top of our just below the detrial layer. However, since there was still a significant amount of cultural material just under the detrital layer that extended an additional 10 cm below the cleared surface (24 pottery fragments)..We interpret the layer below the so-called detrital layer as indicating an earlier period, most probably before 1250 AD, and prior to the initial interments of the cemetery as we have revealed it to date.

Common ware constituted most of the total finds classified as Type1-d (50%), defined as common ware pottery with a well-variegated red fabric and a white or beige slip. Type 1-d was found evenly throughout all levels, which seems to indicate that this pottery type was utilized during the entire period of occupation. Most of the Type 1-d potsherds appear to be from water containers, which, in some cases, included vessels with a hole-spout located near the base of the vessel. Although Ilibalyk is in a rather fertile area between two tributaries of the Osek River, the naturally dry climate and urban settlement would still necessitate water storage and transportation. Thus, these types of water-bearing vessels would be both common and necessary. The presence of this kind of ceramics, across almost five centuries of occupation, means that they cannot be used to diagnose chronology with any specificity.

Cookware made up 11 % of all pottery fragments in the locus. These potsherds are characterized by medium variegation having many inclusions (especially mica and quartz particles) with no decoration, and often charred on the exterior surface of the sherd. Only nine total sherds were glazed ware and four of those were fragments from the same, green-glazed lamp found at 40 cm below the cleared surface of the current ground level, which we identified as belonging to the early 14th-century occupational surface. The other two glazed sherds belonged to a faded blue glaze bowl found in at the upper section of the sondage (0-25 cmbs) and light green sherds near the same level as the above-mentioned lamp.

Few diagnostic potsherds were discovered (rims, bases, handles, etc.) except for some bases of water-bearing vessels or other utilitarian containers; moreover, no diagnostic fragments appeared above the 30 cmbs mark during our excavations. So far, these fragments provide no additional insight as to precise dating.

The ceramic sherds within L-273 were generally uniform, except in two circumstances. First, no pottery with gray fabric was detected below the 60 cm mark. In fact, this pottery made with gray clay constituted the highest percentage (25%) of the pottery down to the 40 cm mark, below the cleared surface, and was located just below the red fabric pottery, mostly with white slip as described above, between the 40 to 60 cm mark. Red fabric pottery made up most of the pottery (44%) found at the upper level which we interpret as the early 14th century level, or the occupational surface of the cemetery and funerary chapel.



Fig. 44. Gray-fabric pottery with décor.

Therefore, it may be accurate to say that gray fabric pottery without significant decoration on the outer surfaces and sidewalls was more characteristic of 14th-century common ware at Ilibalyk than during the previous centuries and may not have been used at all during the earliest stages of the settlement.

A second unique characteristic of the pottery within L-273, is the appearance of Type 5g which is characterized by a light-brown fabric and many quartz and mica inclusions (Fig. 45). This type has no slip; however, it has been burnished along the inner lip and rim. Three sherds from separate closed-mouthed vessels of this type were found at or below the 60 cm mark. Two other potsherds were also discovered at this lower level, classified as Type 5a with a well-variegated brown fabric with no slip, and had T-shaped rims from two separate vessels. All the sherds appear to come from bowls with thin sidewalls and could be characterized as table ware. These sherds are unique based on their burnishing (which is not found on any other pottery fragments throughout the locus) and forms, which are small-sized bowls with T-shaped or everted rims. None of them have a slip or glaze. It appears that these fragments indicate a type and/or form not found in the upper cultural layers and may indicate a 10th or 11th century typology among the common ware at Ilibalyk. Only further examination and comparison with other sites can verify this and the other hypotheses mentioned above.

Chronological Insights for the Christian Cemetery at Ilibalyk

Despite the discovery of five gravestones with written inscriptions at Ilibalyk, none of these stones have provided a specific date. One stone states that Petros the priest died during the “year of the monkey” based on the 12-year animal cycle of the Turkic and Asian calendars (Baumer, Church of the East, 2016, 286). While this limits the number of possible dates across a 150-year history, it provides nothing of an exact date such as is found across the entire corpus of other Zhetisu gravestones which often state the year of death based on the Seleucid calendar (Gilbert forthcoming; Dickens 2020, Echoes, 25-38; Zhumagulov 2014).

Due to an increasing number of radiocarbon (C-14) results obtained over the course of this archaeological expedition’s six seasons together along with the recent absolute date provided by the silver coin discovered in Unit 13, Locus 270 (see Cultural Material Section, pp. 56-58); a better understanding of chronology for the Christian cemetery in Area C has emerged. Even prior to archaeological excavations, the general date range for the Ilibalyk site was known thanks to the coin hoards and individual finds that have been referred to many times in our subsequent reports (see also Petrov, et.al. 2014). The five-hundred-year span between the 10th through the beginning of the 14th century has been the basic chronology of the site with the city’s height of flourishing during the 13th and 14th centuries, particularly during the Chagatay khanate period (1250-1350).

Since 2016, seven C-14 samples have been taken. One sample was taken in Field III, Unit 1 in 2016 from a wood carbon sample at the bottom of a large and deep midden near a small medieval structure. The remaining samples come from Area C: L-028 (U-3, 2018, tested in 2020); L-125 (U-7B, 2019, tested in 2021); L-089 (U-7B, 2019, tested in 2021); L-086 (U-7C, 2019, tested in 2020); L-186 (U-9C, 2019, tested in 2020); and L-230 (U-12, 2020, tested in 2021). This section provides a summary of the context and results of each sample from Area C and then, in conjunction with the absolute dating from the coin in L-270, some more specific dating hypotheses will be proposed. All the dating reports, except the 2016 results from Field III, are contained in Appendix G, Radiocarbon Analysis Report pp. 245ff).

Radiocarbon Results in Context

The C-14 results obtained in the abovementioned Field III, now designated U-1 (Test Trench 11 in 2016) came prior to the discovery of the graves in Area C in 2018. The excavation in Field III revealed a large midden or storage pit 1.99 m deep containing potsherds, a significant amount of animal bone, and ash. At one point this pit may have been used for storage but was likely just a place for burning refuse in conjunction with a small structure (then designated Units 12, 16, and 19) excavated approximately 30 m to the north in an area with a slight rise in the terrain. This mudbrick structure’s function was never determined with certainty, though it appeared residential simply based on the cultural material. No clear structure was discerned. It did not seem to be in direct association with the cemetery that was later discovered during the field survey undertaken in 2016. The C-14 sample was taken near the base of the pit mentioned above and was from a small piece of wood charcoal, presumably form the occupants of the structure, which lies approximately 610 m to the southwest of Area C (and 200 m east of the Karasu River in the northern rabad area. The sample was analyzed at the Center for Applied Isotope Studies of the University of Georgia in their mass spectrometry laboratory (UGAMS) in the USA. (See 2016 Field Report, 244, 270; 2019 Field Report, 239).

As previously reported, the radiocarbon analysis indicated a calendar range between 1130 and 1190 AD; but its recalibrated dates indicated a 98% probability that the charcoal dates between 1207 to 1279 AD. The calibrated date range (with a 68% probability) was between 1218 AD-1270 AD, placing the sample clearly within the 13th century. This confirmed what both the numismatic material and basic range of the pottery had already established pertaining to the site’s height of occupation.


Five of the 6 remaining samples all come from within the cemetery as revealed in Area C and, in fact, from specific graves. The most recent results were obtained from human bone samples (L- 125, L-089), while the others came from charcoal found within the graves except for L- 028 which was an ash pit discovered directly on top of mudbricks from grave L-190. The sample from L-230 was from a piece of burned wood discovered at the 597.300 m asl within the funerary chapel first revealed in 2020. Four of the samples (L-028, L-086, L-186,
L-230) were processed at the University of Arizona (USA) Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, the other two (L-125, L-089) were processed at Vilnius Radiocarbon Mass Spectrometry Laboratory of the Center for Physical Sciences and Technology in Vilnius, Lithuania.

Fig. 46. C-14 sample locations

Technical Aspects of Each Sample and Date Ranges

The following summary provides details on the collected samples in Area C, their specific radiocarbon age BP (before present, 1950 AD), the standard deviation +/-, and their calibrated date ranges.

Locus 028 (Unit 3): This sample was taken during excavations in 2018 at a level of 596.857 m. asl. The locus identified an area of burning that was just on top of the surface of bricks from the tomb in L-190, possibly an older female that was fully excavated in 2019 (see 2018 Field Report, 26-28; 2019 Field Report 199-200).

The locus is near the southern border of the identified boundaries of the cemetery and lies 20.5 m northeast of the funerary chapel (L-230). This sample was wood charcoal from this area of burning and had a carbon yield of 71.7% providing 1.83 mg for testing. The δ13C isotopic signature resulted in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 as -24 parts per thousand, providing a C-14 date 822 years before the year 1950, with an error of margin of +/- 30 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1098 to 1158 AD. When reassessed using the Oxford Calibration (OxCal v.4.3.2.) or International Calibration (IntCal13) methods, more probable date ranges of 1192 to 1258 AD (68% probability), or a 95% probability between 1164 to 1264 AD.

Locus 086 (Unit 7C): This sample of wood charcoal was taken just above the rib cage on the left (or northern side) of the skeleton in the grave of Locus 086 during excavations in 2019 at a level of 597.018 m. asl. (2019 Field Report, 50-52, 56, 162). The grave was located amongst the highest concentration of adult graves in the north-central section of Area C, just 2.3 m southeast of L-089 and 5.7 m southeast of L-125. The sample had a carbon yield of 55% providing 1.23 mg for testing. The δ13C isotopic signature resulted in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 as -26.1% parts per thousand, providing a C-14 date 662 years before the year 1950, with an error of margin of +/- 19 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1269 to 1307 AD. When reassessed using the Oxford Calibration (OxCal v.4.3.2.) or International Calibration (IntCal13) methods, more probable date ranges of 1286 to 1383 AD (68% probability), or a 95% probability between 1281 to 1389 AD.

Locus 186 (Unit 9C): This sample, also wood charcoal, was obtained from a child or infant’s grave located in the southeast section of the cemetery of Area C and approximately 5 m due west of abovementioned L-028/L-190 at a level of 597.294 m asl., 27.6 cm above the latter sample. The grave had been washed out, by possible snowmelt or flooding and the child’s skull was about all that remained; alternatively, it was disturbed by some other unknown intervention. The grave was in proximity and near the same level as two other infant graves (L-183 and L-200). Because of the later disturbance, it is possible that the charcoal had been introduced to the grave’s context at a later date. The sample had a carbon yield of 69.1% providing 1.61 mg for testing. The δ13C isotopic signature resulted in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 as -26 parts per thousand, providing a C-14 date 661 years before the year 1950, with an error of margin of +/- 27 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1262 to 1316 AD. However, when reassessed using the Oxford Calibration (OxCal v.4.3.2.) or International Calibration (IntCal13) methods, more probable date ranges of 1285 to 1385 AD (68% probability), or a 95% probability between 1278
to 1392 AD.

Locus 089 (Unit 7B): This sample was taken from the human skeletal remains of the high- status adult female grave excavated in the north-central section of Area C (2019 Field Report, 43- 45, 168-169, 209-221; Stewart 2020; Gilbert, Stewart 2023?). It was located 2.3 m northwest of L-086 and 2 m southeast of L-125. All three of these graves are in the same general vicinity of Unit 7. The remains rested at a level of 597.100 m. asl. The sample’s carbon yield and milligrams tested were not provided by the Vilnius lab. The C-14 date of 590 years before the year 1950, with an error for margin of +/- 26 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1334 to 1386 AD. When reassessed using the Oxford Calibration (OxCal v. 4.4.2) method, more probable date ranges of 1321 to 1402 AD (68.3% probability), or a 95.4% probability between 1304 to 1409 AD. It should also be noted that more than a 50% probability is possible for the ranges between 1321 and 1358 AD.

Locus 125 (Unit 7B): This sample was also a human bone sample taken from the skeletal remains of an adult male (?) in this grave located in the far north-central section of Area C (2019 Field Report, 45-46; 179-180). This grave is located on the northernmost boundary of the cemetery and northwest of L-089 by 2 m and L-086 by 5.7 m. The remains rested at a level of 596.750 m. asl. The sample’s carbon yield and milligrams tested were not provided by the Vilnius lab. The C- 14 date of 582 years before the year 1950, with an error for margin of +/- 27 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1341 to 1395 AD. When reassessed using the Oxford Calibration

(OxCal v. 4.4.2) method, more probable date ranges of 1323 to 1404 AD (68.3% probability), or a 95.4% probability between 1305 to 1415 AD. It should also be noted that more than a 50% probability is possible for the ranges between 1323 and 1357 AD.

Locus 230 (Unit 12): This wood charcoal sample was taken in the locus designated as the level of the main hall (Room 1) for what is interpreted as a funerary chapel, the structure found due south of the Christian cemetery of Area C. (see 2020 Field Report, 6, 12-13; 20-21, 44) and close to the vicinity Locus 233, which was identified as a burnt root from a tree which had the same diameter of a possible stump located on the eastern side of Room 1 (2020 Field Report, 21, 107). The sample was taken at a level of 597.300 m. asl and had a carbon yield of 63.2% providing
0.62 mg for testing. The δ13C isotopic signature resulted in the ratio of carbon-13 to carbon-12 as
-24.7 parts per thousand, providing a C-14 date 506 years before the year 1950, with an error of margin of +/- 43 years indicating a medieval range between the years 1401 to 1487 AD. However, when reassessed using the Oxford

Fig. 47. Graphic representation of C-14 date ranges from the portion of the cemetery in Area C
(Steven Gilbert)

Calibration (OxCal v.4.3.2.) or International Calibration (IntCal13) methods, more probable date ranges of 1403 to 1444 AD (68% probability), or a 95% probability between 1321 to 1459 AD. These results, as stated by the University of Arizona AMS Laboratory, had a measurement uncertainty higher than normal.9 An attempt was made to improve the precision by running additional tests of the sample. These results were inconclusive, thus the uncertainty increased rather than narrowed the results. A spike in the calibration indicates a 15th century date in the results. The implications and interpretation of these result will follow below.

9) Email correspondence from Dr. Greg Hodgins, March 31, 2021.

Concluding Hypotheses concerning the Cemetery and Funerary Chapel of Area C

The above timeline graphic (Fig. 47) provides a visual of the radiocarbon samples taken from the cemetery and funerary chapel that lies due south of the graves at the site and allows us to derive certain generalized conclusions about the chronology for the Christian community of Ilibalyk. First, the C-14 readings clearly affirm what the other cultural material (both coins and pottery) has signified– the portion of the cemetery excavated in Area C was in use predominately between the 12th through 14th centuries, and perhaps, more specifically, the Christian cemetery interments occured during the latter part of the 12th through the first half of the 14th centuries. While C-14 data suggests a possible extension into the early 15th century, numismatic data on the overall site has not surpassed the year 1340 (see 2019 Field report, 238-241). Thus, it is our current hypothesis that the relative dates that extend into the late 14th and early 15th century are less likely to be within the percentages of the relative dates that radiocarbon analysis provides.

The earliest date based on the laboratory analyses was from the ash pit (L-028) found on top of the mudbricks of the grave in L-190, with the latest possible date being 1264 AD. Thus, it is assumed that this grave is probably from the 13th century. Other graves discovered at this level and even lower (L-190, L-211, L-193) presumably come from this same period. One variable that should be kept in mind, however, is the fact that the carbon sample came from wood charcoal. The date would register from the period of the wood’s cutting (or death), which conceivably could predate the interment. Yet, the current hypothesis is that the burn pit on top of the mudbrick of the tomb came from funerary meal preparation that would have happened at the time of interment, thus the nearby wood collected for the fire would not be significantly older than when it was used as fuel.

The results from L-028 suggest that this portion of the currently revealed cemetery was in use by the mid-12th century, if not earlier. It is important to note that no kayraks affiliated with the Church of the East in the region have been discovered that have been inscribed or attributed to a period prior to the year 1200 (find Dickens 2020 Echoes, 30).10 If that reflects the historical reality, then the adult grave interments in Unit 3 of Area C are less likely to predate 1200 AD, although other identified Christian burials, such as those in Tik-Turmas and Taraz have been attributed to the 8th or 9th centuries, yet with no discoveries of kayraks from that period (Baipakov and Ternovaya 2018, 11-15). The unfortunate reality thus far concerning the gravestones of Ilibalyk is that—unlike stones from the Chu Valley and Almalyk—no absolute dates were inscribed on the stones that have been recovered so far. (11)

The data also suggests that the three graves 36 m to the northwest of the interments in Unit 3, specifically the adult graves in Unit 7, came at a later period, with L-086 interred earlier (circa 1285 or later) than L-089 (circa 1321 or later) and L-125 (circa 1323 or later). This may even indicate that interments were buried in an orderly sequence with burials placed further north as time progressed. This hypothesis could be suspect when considering that L-089 and L-125 came from the skeletal remains themselves, while the L-086 was from wood charcoal. A wood sample has the possibility of dating earlier if the wood was cut significantly prior to the burial. However, when viewed in conjunction with the adult burials in Unit 3, the small amount of evidence still suggests that burials further north from the southern boundary of the cemetery were from the first half of the 14th century, while adult burials further south were older, and specifically, in Unit 3, at the southern boundary of the cemetery were interred in the second half of the 13th century or sooner.

10) During the initial period of translation of many of the stones found in the late 19th/early 20th century, two stones were attributed to an earlier period, however, Dickens has clearly shown these translations were incorrect.
11) Of the five stones discovered with inscriptions, the Petros Stone states Petros the priest died in the “year of the monkey” based on the 12-year animal cycle but does not provide a Seleucid date as many stones in southern Zhetisu.

The evidence for the funerary chapel and its ecclesiastical function contemporary with the cemetery seems well established based on evidence of both context, pottery, and other cultural material discovered in situ within the structure as well as based upon the coin find from this season which provided an absolute date of 1310. As we have established, this coin had a 10-year circulation, which provides a terminus post quem of 1320 at the occupational surface for the structure in Unit 12, the funerary chapel. The latest kayrak dated at Almayk comes from 1369 (Gilman 1999, 196). While individual Christians are referred to in Central Asia the 15th century in textual sources, no significant communities or settlements are referred to that late (Moffett 1998, 487-488). Thus, it is possible that the wood charcoal sample taken from L-230 in the main hall of the structure came from a source that likely existed after the structure was either destroyed or fell into disuse.

Our excavations suggest such a scenario. As reported in 2020 (2020 Field Report, 21) a large 30 cm-diameter circular feature was found at the floor level within the funerary chapel on the eastern side of the hall (Room 1) designated Locus 233. The feature was initially detected at a level of 597.351 m asl and proceeded downward to a level of 596.963 m. asl. It was filled with ash, but at the base of the hole, charred tree roots were discovered. At the time, excavators interpreted this discovery as a tree that had grown up (thus the tree’s trunk was the circular feature) within the structure at a date following its disuse and/or collapse. The charcoal sample discovered in L-230 was found at the 597.300 m. asl. level approximately 3 to 5 meters from the feature in L- 233. As our report indicated, the sunken floor of the chapel showed evidence of burning, including evidence from Ground Penetrating Radar scans taken in 2017 at this exact location. One interpretation for this burning is that it happened in conjunction with the structure’s destruction. However, another possible scenario is that the structure was abandoned, collapsed by earthquake or neglect following abandonment in the latter half of the 14th century. Subsequently a tree grew within the rubble of the exposed structure, later burned and our sample was taken from a tree that lived during the 15th century at the site following its abandonment. While all quite speculative and requiring an adjustment on our initial thoughts that the funerary chapel was destroyed by fire, the data can support what the C-14 sample in L-230 provides. Of course, the scenario that the wood sample discovered still stands and was taken from the structure since the results allow for a date as early as 1321, contemporary with the numismatic evidence as well. It is also possible that the Christians continued to live as late as the Timurid period (1370 and beyond), with a small population in which coinage was scarce and people lived by subsistence.

While still lacking clear chronology, a more detailed picture is emerging related to the period of usage for that portion of the Christian cemetery that has been excavated, based on the radiocarbon and numismatic evidence. The cemetery existed possibly as early as 1200 AD and most certainly no later than 1364 AD. More research and data is necessary before burials based on location and/or type can be placed along a relatively certain timeline. Further excavation will also be necessary to see if chronological variations can be discerned in Area B, where one burial has been discovered along with several kayraks. The funerary chapel, based on levels and the absolute dating from a nearby coin was probably not erected prior to the 14th century and after the cemetery for the Christians of Ilibalyk had already been established. This may indicate that the chapel had earlier phases (though such evidence is currently lacking, yet as our schematic drawing in the Introduction suggests a 2-phase scenario), another chapel may be located elsewhere, or the use of a chapel may have been a newly established ritual practice for the Ilibalyk Christian community at that time. The final days of the chapel are still too problematic to adequately speculate based on the C-14 data and the wide variety of possible scenarios such data evokes. So far, the C-14 evidence provides no scenario in which burials occurred any later than 1415.

Dental Forensic Data from 2021 Skeletal Remains

Dr. Andy B.Y. LEE, DDS, MSD
Chosun University Dental School, Republic of Korea
Chief Researcher, Bridge Medical Association Department of Humanities and Social Medicine, Dental Service International Department of Humanities and Social Dentistry, The Research Institute for the Languages and Cultural studies of Central Asia

During the excavations at Usharal-Ilibalyk, I participated in this project by performing dental observation and analysis of skeletal remains together with the excavation process.
Since teeth are the strongest structures in the human body, dental age estimation is regarded more reliable as it is less variable in postmortem. Through the relatively well-preserved remains from the remains found at Ilibalyk, estimations were possible for the oral and dental condition from the human skulls with teeth and bones such as facial, jaw and alveolar bones. Also, estimation concerning the approximate ages through the degree of tooth wear, or attrition was obtained by two methods. One is age estimation through analysis of permanent molars, using the Average Stage of Attrition (ASA) as developed by Chunbiao Li and Guijin Ji. (1995); the other is an age estimation method using functional pattern and the role of dental wear by C. Owen Lovejoy (1985).

The tooth maturities of ancient, medieval, and pre-modern people are very different from those of today. Compared to current human teeth, pre-modern teeth show a more severe degree of tooth wear. In other words, if one applies research performed on people from the past to those of the present generation, age estimates are usually quite advanced, exceeding the estimate.

Therefore, besides examining the degree of tooth ware, other examinations such as radiography and biological (DNA) examination along with anthropological and archaeological research provide additional information to gain a more accurate estimation of the age-at-death. More accurate age estimation can be determined by measuring the degree of attrition, secondary dentine formation, periodontal change, cementum apposition, transparency and root resorption of the teeth, as well as oro-maxillo-facial bone conditions of the remains. Further examinations such as paleopathological and radiologic analysis, e.g., conventional, and cephalometric X-ray analyses and Computerized Tomography (CT) scanning investigation for dental details and oral structures of mummies are required to gain more information about dentition and the jaw from human remains. Also, the chemical analysis of teeth enamel and dental calculus on tooth surfaces, such as carbon isotopes found in bones and teeth is needed to gain information concerning diet from food the individual might have consumed. We also believe that expert assistance and advice concerning ancient food and nutrition is necessary.
In this archaeological excavation, many difficulties limit the ability to measure the degree of tooth wear due to the conditions of the preserved remains, limited time, and manpower. In the future, further research through forensic medicine and dentistry, coupled with anthropological and archaeological research on the remains from Ilibalyk needs be conducted in order to gain a more accurate estimate of the age of each individual skeleton. The following dental findings focus on the remains which were relatively well preserved, such as L-268, L-289 and L-290.

Summary of Results
Excavated Human Remains: Good preservation condition of skulls and jaws

L-268 (Adult Female) Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 53.48 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 45~55 years old.

1. (Adult Female) Age:

Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 34.80 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 30~35 years old.

1. (Adult Female) Age:

Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 30.08 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 24~30 years old

Excavated Human Remains: Bad preservation condition of skulls and jaws

1. (Adult Male) Age:

Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 53.48 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 40~50 years old.
L-111A (Adult Female) Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: ~ 40 years old. Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 35~40 years old.

1. Sub-Adult (Gender N/A) Age:

Approximately 2-4 years old.

Sources:
Chunbiao Li and Guijin Ji (1995) “Age Estimation from the Permanent Molar in Northeast China by the Method of Average Stage of Attrition.” Forensic Science International 75: 189-196.

C. Owen Lovejoy (1985) “Dental Wear in the Libben Population: Its Functional Pattern and Role in the Determination of Adult Skeletal Age at Death.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68:47-56.

* Age: Estimating age-at-death

Analytical Data:
L-268 (Adult Female) Estimated age-at-death: Approximately 53.48 years old.

L-268 (Adult Female) Estimated age-at-death: Approximately 53.48 years old.

1. Remaining Teeth

Maxilla - Rt.15,14,13,12,11 and Lt.21,23,27 tooth

Mandible - Rt.48,47,44,43 and Lt.32,33,34,35,36,38 tooth

2. Severe tooth wear on Mx. Rt.15,14,13,12,11 and Lt.21,23 and Md. Rt. 44,43 and Lt.32,33 tooth. Particularly periapical lesions caused by severe attrition of Mx.Rt. teeth 13.12.11 and tooth Lt.23.

- The primary cause of this tooth wear might be as a result of chewing a coarse, fibrous diet throughout her life, which made produced even more abrasion through the introduction of inorganic particles (e.g. sand from soil, rock fragments from flint, harvesting and food processing tools, etc.) particularly in bread, a staple food.

- Hard minerals in milled grains abraded the surface of her teeth and gums, exposing the bone below and making the roots loose. Similar wear-and-tear is found in the teeth of Egyptian mummies who ate milled grains. This serves as sandpaper acting upon her teeth. Had she lived an additional 5 to 10 years, she certainly would have lost more teeth.

- Her dental problem shows the results of eating an agricultural diet instead of a huntergatherer diet. She might have eaten processed food, whereas hunter-gatherers were depending on meat and berries: the processing added a bigger variety of agricultural food impacted the quality of her teeth.

- High-wear rates and low caries, and a high prevalence, in this case, of periodontal disease accords well Egyptian mummies’ cases. The diet of ancient Egyptians, particularly bread, reportedly had excessive sand content, whose silica is thought to have been a major cause of dental attrition.

- Almost a complete loss of crown structure often occurred at a faster rate than the odontoblasts were able to lay down secondary dentine, resulting in pulpal exposure, necrosis of the pulp and subsequent apical infection. Multiple periapical abscesses formation of several teeth was indicative of how severe the problem of tooth wear was in this case.

3. Periodontal disease, particularly severe periodontal bone resorption on Md. Lt. tooth
36 and tooth 38.

- The loss of the periodontium has always a quite common disease, as is evidenced by the discovery of Stone Age skulls and the examination of Egyptian mummies.

- Although the loss of the periodontal supporting tissue almost extended to the middle half of the root, her teeth appeared to be clean because her abrasive diet contributed significantly to a process of self-cleaning.

4. Dental caries on distal proximal of Md. Lt. tooth 36 (Md. Lt. First Molar) which seems to be already have extended to the dental pulp.

5. Due to her poor dental health, she might have experienced pain when eating hot or tough foods.

6. The jaw-angle relationship classification: Class I

- The fully erupted and well aligned teeth may represent a morphologic adaptation of the arches to the muscular activity associated with grinding tough foods. - However, several inclined teeth and over-erupted teeth are indicated by a longer duration from loss of opposing and adjacent teeth at an early age.

6. Some evidence of temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disease e.g. morphologic change of condyles, asymmetric lower jaw and face, canting of occlusal plane

- Loss of vertical dimension from excessive tooth wear and abnormal chewing from asymmetric tooth loss might have brought altered mechanical function of the joint, resulting in a Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) problem.

7. Estimation of age-at-death by visual examination for tooth wear in adults:
L268 (Adult Female)
Age: Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 53.48 years old.
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 45~55 years old.


L-289 Dental Analysis

1. Dental cavities on Mx. Rt. teeth 16, 17, 18 and Md. Rt. tooth 48

2. Moderate wear of both anterior and posterior teeth


More wear on both canine teeth with labial bony fenestration may suggest something about her work or habits, e.g. chewing hard food or materials.

3. Severe periodontal disease.

Particularly heavy dental calculus deposition on posterior teeth. Many anterior teeth had more alveolar bone loss than posterior teeth extruded. Extrusion of teeth 16 and 26.

4. Loss of teeth 36, 41, 42, 46 and 47, but less bony atrophy may indicate a dental cause of loss instead of periodontal cause

5. The jaw-angle relationship classification: Class I

6. There is some evidence of the temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) disease e.g. asymmetric morphologic change of condyles

7. Estimated age-at-death by visual examination for teeth wear in adults:
L289 (Adult Female)

Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 34.90 years old.
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 30~35 years old.



1. No visible dental caries in remaining teeth

2. More wear of anterior teeth enamel (U and L) but slight wear of posterior teeth

This unusual wear pattern might indicate something about her work or habits. For example, upper
and lower anterior teeth with more attrition might suggest some habits like chewing leather to
soften it or holding twine during basket weaving.

3. No severe periodontal disease.
4. The jaw-angle relationship classification: Class I
5. Less evidence of temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) disease
6. Estimated age-at-death by visual examination for teeth wear in adults:
L-290 (Adult Female)

Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 30.08 years old.
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 24~30 years old.

Note: The remaining three sets of remains reported below were only examined via photographic
evidence. Examination to be conducted in a laboratory later and reported subsequently



Estimated age-at-death by visual examination for teeth wear in adults:
L-277 (Adult Male)


Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: 53.48 years old.
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 40~50 years old.

L111A (Adult Female), Estimated age-at-death: Over 40


Note: Unclear occlusal surfaces of the teeth due to dust and mud


Estimated age-at-death by visual examination for teeth wear in adults:
L-111A (Adult Female)
Age:
Estimate according to methodology by Li and Ji: approximately 40 years old
Estimate according to methodology by C. O. Lovejoy: 35~40 years



Note: Unclear occlusal surfaces of the teeth with dust and mud.

L-278 (Sub-adult)
Estimated age-at-death by visual examination: approximately 2-4 years old

Dental and Forensic References

Abbass MMS, D. Rady, I.A. Radwan, et al.(2019) “Prevalence of Periodontal Diseases and Its Correlation with Different Risk Factors among an Adult Egyptian Population: A Cross-
Sectional Study.” [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review] F1000Research 2019, 8:1740 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.20310.1)

Cameriere, Roberto, Luigi Ferrante, Maria Giovanna Belcastro, Benedetta Bonfiglioli,
Elisa Rastelli, Mariano Cingolani. (2007) “Age Estimation by Pulp/Tooth Ratio in Canines by Peri-Apical X-Rays.” J Forensic Sci, Vol. 52, No. 1.

Fidalgo, Daniel, Veronica Wesolowski, Mark Hubbe. (2021) “The Impact of Dental Wear on the Analysis of Morphological Affinities based on Dental Non-metric Traits. Dental Anthropology, Vol. 34, Issue 02:44-56.

Kvall, Sigrid I., Kristin M. Kolltveit, Ib. O. Thomsenb, Tore Solheima. (1995) “Age Estimation of Adults from Dental Radiographs. Forensic Science International 74:175-185.

Lanfranco, Luis Pezo and Sabine Eggers. (2012) “Caries through Time: An Anthropological Overview.” Open access peer-reviewed chapter, www.intechopen.com.

Lee, Sang Eon, Sang-Hoon Lee, Jeong-Yun Lee, Hee-Kyung Park, Young-Ku Kim. (2008) “Age Estimation of Korean Children based on Dental Maturity. Forensic Science International. 178:125–131.

Lewis, Amitha J. and Chandni Sreekumar, N. Srikant, Karen Boaz, K.P. Nandita, Nidhi Manaktala, Shweta Yellapurkar. (2021) “Estimation of Age by Evaluating the Occlusal Tooth Wear in Molars: A Study on Dakshina

Kannada Population.” Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dentistry. 13:429–440.

CONCLUSION

Because our excavations are ongoing, every season provides new data that changes our “working hypotheses” and understanding of this site. This section provides some of our general conclusions and tentative interpretations, they should not be considered the “final word” and are always open to revision based on the acquisition of new data during potentially future excavations or outside evidence which could impact our understanding of the overall context.

Despite the continued restrictions and limitations in manpower and personnel imposed by the global Covid pandemic, the 2021 excavation at Usharal-Ilibalyk proved quite successful. The dig plan objectives, as detailed in the introduction of the report, were mostly investigated, and significant progress has been made in advancing our knowledge and understanding of the site as well as the greater context of the community of Christians in this area during the late Middle Ages. When combined with our growing knowledge of other sites in Xinjiang (China) and the Chu River Valley (Kyrgyzstan) a clearer regional picture is emerging. The following observations and conclusions highlight what has been learned.

Cemetery Boundaries More Clearly Defined

Excavations in Units 13, 14, and 15 have clarified the scope of the Christian cemetery. The western boundary is now completely delineated. It spans approximately 60 m in a south-to-north direction. The southernmost grave on the western boundary is characterized by an unexcavated grave indicated by an adult tibia and possible metacarpal discovered in the Unit 10 test trench (L- 210) in 2019 (see 2019 Field Report, 114) which lies due west of the structure (funerary chapel) in Unit 12. The westernmost grave was L-277, an adult male grave located at approximately 5 m from the western baulk in Unit 14. It is likely that more graves are be found due north of the graves excavated in this unit but not any further west. The excavations of 2017, 25 m north/northwest of U-14 inadvertently now provides an understanding of the northwest corner of the cemetery. At the time, of those excavations (then labeled Unit 3, but now dubbed Unit 3-2017, see 2017 Field Report, 45.), no graves were discovered. Rather, a midden and other indiscernible soil features were exposed. It is now evident that excavations in this unit were just beyond the western boundary of the cemetery which was missed by only a few meters at the time.

The southern boundary has also been clarified. Within the 22.5 x 32 m Unit 12—whose predominate feature is the funerary chapel structure discovered in 2020— only one infant grave was discovered which was approximately 4 m south of Unit 3. L-210, as mentioned above, is the southernmost human remains, which may indicate more interments slightly parallel to the structure. However, excavations in the newly exposed Unit 13 demonstrate that no graves exist south of the structure. In fact, this area appears to have served as a place of burning and rubbish dumping. The presence of small clusters of animal bone may suggest food preparation occurred.

The cemetery’s eastern boundary appears to be continuing in the direction of Area B. Discovery of graves, both infant and adult, in newly excavated Unit 15 (L-278, L-289, L-290, L- 291, L-293), while perhaps not as dense as those found in Units 5, 7, and 8, are possibly indicating that the cemetery of Area C will connect with Area B, which seems logical given the burial discovered there (Unit 6, L-008) the previous season and as indicated by the 8 kayraks found in Area B. In addition, the northern boundary’s placement, while less certain than that of the western and southern boundaries, probably extends no further than 60 m to the north of the southern boundary. This, again, explains why excavations in 2017 failed to locate graves since most excavations in Area B that year (U-5, U-4 and possibly U-2) were north of this mark. Excavations

in of U-1 and U-3 of Area B failed to locate graves probably because they failed to extend deep enough.

Fig. 49. Extent of known cemetery boundaries

Clarification on the Chronology and Entrances of the Funerary Chapel

One of the excavation objectives for 2021 involved clarifying the area around the structure interpreted as a funerary chapel in Unit 12. While several questions remain, and evidence for an earlier construction phase remains unclear, the pathway extending toward the southern entrance of the structure (L-253) appears not to have been a wall. In fact, a possible southern entrance threshold appeared to be the only place where adobe mudbricks or blocks were detected, thus the almost perpendicular feature labeled L-253 in 2020 was likely a footpath leading to the southern entrance.

On the north side of the structure, the features L-257 and L-258, revealed in 2020, were initially thought to be graves given their apparent east/west orientation and similar measurements (L-257, 2.10 x 0.80 m, L-258, 2.30 x 0.70 m). However, a brief excavation at these loci revealed that neither of the features were graves. The current interpretation is that these features marked a delineation between the cemetery to the north and the funerary chapel’s territory. They may have been part of a gate construction and/or entryway into the cemetery itself in which the deceased was escorted from the chapel to the grave. The entire section designated L-185 which revealed a metal cross in 2019 [Ib_19_C_IV_001_I025_50, see 2019 Field Report, 228] and a kayrak (L- 234; Ib_20_С_IV_234, 2020 Field Report, 52) in 2020 remains somewhat of an enigma. The main reason is that this area is obstructed by a rather large tree which currently cannot be removed to keep environmental impact to a minimum. Currently, it appears that L-185 is a part of the larger chapel ground and perhaps enclosed by a retaining wall (designated as Block 1 in the 2020 Field Report, 12-14, 82-84), however, the large amount of charcoal flecks and the gray-colored soil raise the question as to whether this section was exposed at one point or if fire collapse the structure. If a grave is eventually detected within the boundaries of L-185, then it may indicate a type of mausoleum adjacent or connected to the chapel. However, this is still an unknown.

The coin found in the sealed layer of L-270 proved significant in providing a possible date (1310) when the building flourished. As our chronology section has demonstrated, the chapel itself is an early 14th century construction while certain sections of the cemetery (most likely the southern half) as revealed in Area C may pre-date the chapel by possibly as much as a century or at least by the second half of the 13th century. The demise of the chapel whose main hall (Room 1, L-230) indicated burning, was initially thought to have been a result of fiery conflagration. While the radiocarbon dating taken from this area is not without issues, it seems a possible scenario is that the structure may have been abandoned prior to its ruination by burning discovered within the structure (see Chronology section, pp. 79-80).

Midden Investigations and Excavations in Unit 13

The objectives for 2021 included the examination of middens, specifically L-222 and L-223 in the southwest corner of excavation Unit 12. In 2020, the soil fill just below the topsoil yielded large amounts of pottery, including glazed fine ware. Once Unit 13 was delineated and cleared as well, other areas with pottery fragments, ash fill, and animal bones also emerged. Almost all the designated loci in Unit 13 were shallow middens, amorphous in shape, and contained similar cultural material, though the pottery was more common table ware in most cases. As the section on the sondage excavated L-273 indicates, our team has gained information concerning possible progressions of pottery dating between the 11th and 14th centuries. Pottery with gray clay fabric and minimal decoration may have been more common in the 14th century than at other periods, yet gray clay pottery with decorative prints and incisions, including possible cross iconography may have been used more as fine ware in earlier periods, specifically 12th and early 13th centuries.

The excavations in U-13 certainly confirmed that no graves exist south of the funerary chapel. Based on the amount of ashy soil and cultural material, the area was used for burning and waste disposal. This also raises the question concerning the ash-colored bricks that line several graves in the cemetery. Is ash to be found in these bricks and was ash from the burning in U-13 an easily accessible source for their production? These bricks’ chemical composition will need to be analyzed to answer that question. Additionally, it is now confirmed that most of the potsherds discovered within the graves and on top of the skeletal remains were from likely from pottery fragments was used as temper in gray-colored bricks i.e., L-111, see Figs. 50-51) as well as the other mudbricks found in the cemetery.

Fig. 50. Brick covering of L-111 (Unit 8A) with ash-colored adobe bricks

Fig. 51. Ash-colored brick with pottery temper from L-111.

Impact of Cultural Finds from 2021 Excavations

Two key finds among the cultural material discovered during excavations from this season were in eastern half of Unit 15. First, was the grave in Locus 290 which could only be partially excavated due to the lateness of the dig season with the grave discovered in the eastern baulk of the trench. With only the skull exposed, remains of a boqta headdress were discovered to the south of the skull’s right temporal lobe (see Unit and Loci Description section, pp. 40-42; Cultural Materials section, pp. 48-51). While more thorough investigations will hopefully be conducted next season when the entire grave can be excavated as a block and taken to a laboratory for careful analysis, it is already possible to conclude that this grave is that of young adult woman (early 30s) with Mongolian features.

As our analysis has shown, the boqta is an indication of high cultural status and very preliminary laboratory microscopic analysis (which will have to be fully reported later) shows that one wood fragment discovered was dyed with possible red ochre paint and decorated with gold leaf. A red boqta was often indicative of royalty amongst the Mongolian ruling class. Mongolian women, in particular the wives of Chinggis Khan’s sons and even later descendants were well known to have been Christians. Documentary evidence is replete with Christian women such as the Karait Soqaqtani Bek—wife of Tolui and mother of the Great Khans Mongke, Kublai and the Il-Khan Hülägü— as well as her cousin Dokus Khatun, known for her piety as a Christian in the second half of the 13th century (Baumer 2016, Church of the East, 216-217; see also Weatherford 2010).


Fig. 52. Alma Khatun kayrak.
Photo from Christoph Baumer, The History of Central Asia Vol 3: The Age of Islam and the Mongols, p. 243.

The stone, housed in the Toktogul Satulganov Museum in Bishkek, measures 28 x 27 x 6 cm is a gray silica stone with a cross inscription in the center and Turkic writing in Syriac script encircles the entire surface. Not only does the inscription provide a commemoration of the princess, but also provides the exact date of Khan Changshi’s accension to the throne according to both the Seleucid calendar (1647, or 1335 AD), and the “year of the mouse” it provides the exact day, December 14, “at the light of dawn.” The stone’s inscription also states that the khan “prepared for this Alma Khatun a commemoration” (presumably the stone?). She had passed away (or “fled”) in the “year of the pig.” Based on the 12-year animal cycle observed by the Turkic people, if Alma Khatun who “died at the exact age of 26” died in the year of the pig and Changshi began his rule in the year of the mouse, then his commemoration of her death, inferring the placement of the gravestone, occurred following his enthronement. The inscription demonstrates not only Alma Khatun’s high status, but also the apparent love and care that the khan had for this young lady who departed at such a young age and the attention he gave to commemorating her after he came to power (Zhumagulov 2014, 62-66; Baumer 2016, History, 243). Additionally, the cross inscription in the stone’s center has four Turkic words, one inserted at each crossbar, translated as “1) the living 2) symbol, 3) Jesus, 4) our Savior” which provided a written declaration of the khatun’s faith (Zhumagulov 2014, 64).

13) Zhumagulov (2014, 62) states that the stone was discovered in 1966.

This fascinating story has an even more tragic ending when considering the course of events, as Khan Changsi would join his princess in death just two years later when the khan’s brother, Yesün Temür (1337-1340), had him murdered. The instability continued when Ali Sultan (1340- 1342) seized the throne from Changsi’s brother in the struggle that involved the emergingly powerful Islamic branch of the Chagataid ruling class and massacred six Catholic at the Franciscan mission in Almalyk, including the bishop, Richard de Bourgogne (Baumer 2016, History, 246). It was during this same period that plague was ravaging the region which even today scholars and scientists are trying to determine if this outbreak was the genesis of the Black Death which decimated a third of Europe’s population a decade later.

The Alma Khatun gravestone demonstrates the continued tradition into the 14th century of wives of the ruling khan often being adherents of Christianity. This case provides an example of a Christian Mongolian khatun (princess) connected with the Chagatai khanate in Zhetisu specifically. Thus, the discovery of the adult female in L-290 and its excavation, while still incomplete, may prove to be the first discovery of human remains from Mongolian royalty in a Christian cemetery in Central Asia. Preliminary indications imply that this woman was very high status. This grave, together with the high-status adult female discovered in L-089 during 2019, provides evidence that some members of the Ilibalyk community were high status Christians both economically and politically. It is probable that the Christians there were impacted by the difficult events of the first half of the 14th century, which our excavations firmly establish chronologically. In other words, the excavations provide both confirmation and expansion of the textual and historical context.

The second major cultural find of 2021 was the manuscript fragment discovered in a metal smoking pipe in Unit-15 in the east-central section of Area C. The report has already examined the possible history and our hypothesis concerning how such a fabric with Old Uighur writing may have come to reside inside this possible opium pipe (see Cultual Materials section, pp. 51-52). Again, very preliminary lab analysis indicates that this fragment was made from silk noil, a byproduct of silk production which was utilized as silk paper. If this initial analysis proves correct, then the manuscript fragment was copied on the most expensive type of paper utilized during medieval times, and, according to one of the excavation team members, Dr. Charles Stewart, more expensive than silk cloth (email correspondence, Feb. 3, 2021). This find accompanied with grave of L-290 affirms our continued hypothesis of this community having people of elite status and wealth involved in the trade that the route just north of the city provided as well as the possibility that rare and expensive manuscripts facilitated the transmission of knowledge and/or religious expression. Such a possibility is certainly reasonable to assume given the findings from the Bulayiq site in the Turpan region of northwest China at the turn of the 20th century (Le Coq 1928, 100).(14)

14) The team has also recently become aware of a new excavation that has occurred at Bulayiq conducted by the School of Sociology and Anthropology of Sun Yat-Sen University in Xinjiang and the Institute of Cultural Relics and Archeology of the Xinjiang Turpan Institute. The expedition produced a 3:33 minute video summary of the dig which was conducted in October/November 2021 and revealed the excavation of the main mound which appears to contain several large rooms including a possible chapel with an east/west orientation and similar in size to the funerary chapel discovered at Ilibalyk. In addition, at least four manuscripts fragments were discovered with what appeared to be Syriac writing, including fragments with red ink, indicative of religious texts; as well as fragments of 2 wooden crosses, possibly wall-mounted; and three plaster fragments with anthropomorphic images including what appears to be a priest with a type of lamp or incense burner. The video provides no narration, so these findings will need to be confirmed hopefully via a written report made available to the international community in the near future.

Remaining Questions for Continued Archaeological Investigation

The past six years of archaeological examination has provided significant advance in our understanding of both the medieval city of Ilibalyk, but also specifically shed light on the Christians who inhabited this city along the trade routes of the Mongolian empire in this section of northern Zhetisu/Semirhechye while they were at their commercial height. It is now possible to conclude that Christians living at Ilibalyk were a significant community contemporary with the known Christian communities in the Chu Valley, Kayalyk (250 km north of Ilibalyk) and Almalyk and impacted economically, socially, and religiously with the greater context. These communities were multi-ethnic, multi-generational and spanned economic classes. Currently, is appears they had their own indigenous clergy, ecclesiastical structures, rites of passage, religious burial rites, and connections with greater Christendom as specifically demonstrated in this modern excavation.

Questions for the site of Ilibalyk remain with our immediate concern being the continued excavation of the cemetery and specifically to carefully complete the complex excavation of the grave in L-290. In addition, with such a large community of Christians, it is not a question of whether they had a church building, but rather exactly where that building is to be found in the context of overall site. The tantalizing manuscript fragment discovered near L-290 in the same excavation unit (U-15) also raises the question as to whether ecclesiastical documents and manuscripts were copied somewhere in the vicinity, though preservation of such manuscripts would be unlikely given the climate which means only fragments found in such things as metal pipes provide small clues. The hope of continued excavations by our international team are filled with nothing less than excitement.

To date the excavations at Usharal-Ilybalyk have provided important glimpses into an area of the world which has been historically unknown. New data obtained from both our pervious and 2021 excavations has allowed us to initially analyze and theoretically reconstruct Usharal- Ilibalyk’s physical characteristics and, thereby, its social and cultural structure. We have worked with great diligence to report our results in upcoming peer-reviewed publications that have either been submitted or are planned within the coming months. As evidenced by this report, progress continued to be made in the areas of chronology and the layout of the Christian cemetery. All the data combined provides a more complete picture of the historical and archaeological context. The high-status graves—particularly the partial excavation of L-290 and the results from L-089 from 2019 is verifying what the historical record also states that women of high social, economic and even political status were a part of the Christian community at Ilibalyk.

As our efforts in L-273 indicate, the beginnings of a ceramic analysis has begun along with stratification that contributes to the relative chronology. Very detailed and careful pottery analysis and typology is still a need. Our radiocarbon results as examined in this report have assisted in providing more specific details regarding the ebb and flow of the population of the Usharal-Ilibalyk site. More thorough ceramics analysis is still needed to determine the source of the materials used in pottery production, and whether they were local or imported, further allowing us to trace trade networks. Soon the examination of the faunal remains from middens within and around the cemetery, will provide a clearer understanding of diet, agriculture, and economic exchange. Thankfully, some of examinations, particularly concerning fabric from the discovered manuscript fragment and concerning some of the special finds delineated in this report are currently undergoing laboratory analysis and will be the subject of subsequent reports.

New forensic, numismatic, ceramic, and biological research is benefiting our overall study— as evidenced by the coin discovered in L-270 which has provided the first absolute date on the site—as well as continued forensic research on the skeletal remains. Grave typologies have even more clarity as our understanding of both grave construction and burial rites have more specific focus. These modern excavations also have both verified and clarified the excavations of pervious Church of the East finds, particularly those of the Chu Valley in southern Zhetisu (Kyrgyzstan) from the 19th and 20th centuries.

However, questions remain and additional scientific analysis such as DNA testing could help us clearly determine some very significant details related to the cemetery’s ethnic composition: whether they were indigenous with centuries of existence in the region or migrants that eventually enculturated; their historical ancestors and modern descendants; and if they were a heterogeneous (inclusive) or homogenous (exclusive) community. Such analysis could confirm or challenge many published hypotheses concerning the Central Asian history and its demography (i.e. nomadic/urban, Iranic/Turkic/Mongol, literate/illiterate etc.) We also need to better understand this population’s diet, general health, and pathologies, etc. Of course, if DNA analysis reveals any association with the Black Death—which is a real possibility—then our site would other significant contributions to our understanding of global history.

We are very grateful to everyone involved in the project and for the continued financial and moral support that is allowing us to uncover some very significant information that contributes to our overall understanding of Ilibalyk specifically and medieval Christianity throughout Central Asia.

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APPENDIX A

Field Forensic Analysis

The Usharal-Ilibalyk 2021 dig team fully excavated 9 graves and partially excavated 2 graves during the season (5 adults and 6 sub-adults). All these graves were in Area C of Field IV which has been the predominate focus of our osteological investigations. Since 2018, the expedition has excavated a total of 94 graves (38 adults, 56 juveniles) in the cemetery. For the first time, our expedition included a forensic dentist (Dr.Byung Yeon Lee) who has been able to examine the dental anatomy of the skeletal remains and provide his analysis in this preliminary report (See Dental Forensic Data section, p 81ff). Of particular importance from this analysis is the more specific data regarding age of the interred at time of death as well as any pathology found in conjunction with the skull. It should be kept in mind, however, that all the field investigations should not be considered the final conclusions related to the forensic data represented. Subsequent investigations will be necessary to confirm, correct, and expand what has been discovered.

An osteological worksheet was completed by excavators for the purpose of recording basic features of the human remains. This included noting the type of burial (primary, secondary, individual, multiple); measurements of the major bones; descriptions of the body position, direction, hand, and head position; overall state of preservation; making simple, general age determinations; examination of skull and pelvic features to possibly discern sex in adult remains; and whether grave goods were present. If the remains were that of a sub-adult, i.e. child or infant, no attempt at discerning sex was made. Photos of the skeletal remains included closes ups of the cranium, maxilla/mandible/teeth, pelvic girdle, and any other special features related to the body or grave.

It should be noted that this year a new system of age categorization has been adopted: Fetus (before birth); Infant (0-3 yrs); Child (3-12 yrs); Adolescent (12-10 yrs); Young Adult (20-35 yrs); Middle Adult (35-50 yrs); and Old Adult (50+ yrs) according to White and Folkens (2005). Previous data has been adjusted to fit these age categories and all future categorizations will reflect this regime.

The adult skeletons, following recordation, were packed separately according to their axial and appendicular arrangements, both right and left, with individual labels and then the entire skeleton was carefully boxed and labeled. Remains of infants or small children were packed together and labeled.

Each skeleton is listed in this forensic analysis numerically according to loci number. To understand the context of these remains archaeologically, we refer the reader to the Unit and Loci Descriptions. See also the grave comparison worksheet in Appendix B, p. 142.

L-111A (Unit-8A)



Measurements:
Femur     43 cm
Humerus 30 cm
Radius 23.5 cm
Ulna       26.5 cm
Tibia      35.5 cm
Fibula   L) 33.5 R) 34.5 cm
Cranium 14.08 (dia); 52 (cir.) cm Pelvis (width) 22 cm
Entire length 150 cm

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine Directional orientation of the body:
Head at west, feet at east.
Position of hands: Left arm at 90-degree angle across abdomen above right arm, right arm at 45- degree angle in upper thoracic region.
Head position: Raised (skull displaced by disturbance from agricultural equipment)

Grave Goods: None present.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater)
Most bones present, but skull and left radius disarticulated or displaced due to apparent soil disturbance from either agricultural activity or previous excavation machinery.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: Yes
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Age Estimation: Middle Adult (35-50 yrs) (See Dental Forensic Data section, p. 91).

Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: square Orbital rim: sharp
Sub-orbital ridges: unpronounced
Forehead: upright Mandible breadth: wide Nuchal crest: smooth Mastoid process: small Mental eminence: triangular

Possible Sex: Female (?)

Additional comments/observations: These remains appear to be part of a niche burial with the initial chamber dug to the north of the interment chamber. Sex determination had some mixed cranial features, however, an examination of the ischiopubic ramus had a sharp medial aspect and overall, the pelvic girdle seemed to be more characteristically female. The maxilla had almost no teeth and most were apparently missing prior to interment. The mandible, in contrast, had most of the teeth present except for 2 lower incisors, yet they did show signs of significant ware. The remains appear to have been struck with a plow, displacing the skull to north, but the mandible is clearly on the cervical vertebrae indicating that the head had been raised to face east. This grave appeared to be in association with the infant remains placed in a small brick chamber on the southeastern part of L-111A, labeled L-111B.

Excavation Year: 2021

L-111B (Unit-8A)

Measurements: None taken in field

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. (based on skull placement)


Directional orientation of the body: Indeterminate, though skull fragments were on the west side of the grave Position of hands: Indeterminate Head position: Indeterminate

Grave Goods: None present.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 1 (30% or less)

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: No
Milk teeth: Yes
Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Age Estimation: Fetus (before birth)?/Infant (0-3 yrs), possible stillborn.

Sex determination observations: N/A

Possible Sex: N/A

Additional comments/observations: This grave may be in association with the adult remains in L-111A. The grave chamber for this infant/stillborn was placed in the northeast corner of the bricks for L-111A. The remains were very small and fragmented. The bones were too fragile to be able to keep them in situ but could only be removed from the soil. They were collected with the only other recognizable bones among the fragments being 3 ribs and possibly a clavicle bone. One partial orbit bone from the cranium was found along with an underdeveloped sacrum. A few milk teeth were found and following the analysis by our on- site dental pathologist, it was determined that these teeth had never erupted from the mandible. Thus, it is believed these remains come from either a newborn or stillborn child.

Excavation year: 2021.

L-205 (Unit-14)

Measurements:
Femur missing Humerus missing Radius missing Ulna missing

Tibia    16 cm (partial) Fibula 15.5 (partial) Cranium missing Pelvis (width) missing Entire length N/A

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine, based on position of feet.
Directional orientation of the body: Surmised that the head was at the west based on position of feet in grave
Position of hands: Indeterminate Head position: Indeterminate

Grave Goods: Yes, one small rectangular stone in probable location of elbow.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 1 (30% or less). Only feet and lower tibiae and fibulae remaining.

Age determination estimation features: N/A

Age Estimation: Child (3-12 yrs)(?) Based on size of feet and lower leg bones.

Sex determination observations: N/A

Possible Sex: N/A

Additional comments/observations: This grave was at the mouth of Unit 10, the 45 (N/S) x 2 E/W) meter- long test trench dug in 2019 used to determine the cemetery’s southern boundary. Final clearing of the area of around the probable grave, a child-sized mandible was found along with one milk tooth as well as one rib and three vertebrae on the west side of the grave. These remains, if in association with the leg and feet bones to the east along with the size of the body’s feet, possibly indicate a child over 3 years of age, but this remains speculative. A small right scapula was also found. Additionally, during this final clearing stage, an adult-sized tooth was found in the soil as well. This tooth appeared to be an upper front incisor which also had shoveling. Overall, this grave had been highly disturbed, and another grave appeared to have been in proximity. A small stone was also found in the location of where the body was interred.

Excavation year: 2021

1. (Unit-14)

Measurements:
Femur 40 cm
Humerus   30 cm
Radius 23 cm
Ulna     21 cm
Tibia    33 cm
Fibula   32 cm Cranium 51 cm (cir)
Pelvis (width) 20 (width) Entire length: not taken

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body: Head at west, feet at east.
Position of hands: Folded at a right, 90-degree angle across the waist. Right arm on top of left.
Head position: Slightly raised, yet soil pillow appeared behind neck rather than head. Feet and legs higher than head in altitude.

Grave Goods: 1 loop earring (silver?) in situ at left side of skull; 3 stones, potsherd at location of left elbow.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater)
Left femur and patella completely missing. Pelvis displaced apparently struck by plow.

Age determination estimation features: Old Adult (50+ yrs) (See Dental Forensic Data section, p. 83).


Epiphyses fused: Yes Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: Yes

Age Estimation: Old Adult (50+ yrs)

Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: round Orbital rim: sharp
Sub-orbital ridges: pronounced
Forehead: sloped Mandible breadth: narrow Nuchal crest: smooth Mastoid process: small
Mental eminence: pronounced

Possible Sex: Female

Additional comments/observations: The grave apparently was disturbed since the scapula and clavicle were pushed upward and to the north. Entire skull also appeared to have been displaced as the mandible was askance to the north away from the rest of the skull. Teeth appeared very worn with some missing at the time of interment. A portion of the pelvis appeared to also have been disturbed. The left femur was completely missing. Right femur appeared to have significant “bowing” as shown by the outward curvature of the bone. Eburnation and marginal lipping possible in left femur and tibia at knee. Dental analysis conducted.

Excavation year: 2021

1. (Unit-14)

Measurements:
Femur (?) 16.5 cm Humerus missing Radius missing Ulna missing
Tibia      not taken, fragmented. Fibula missing
Cranium fragmented Pelvis (width) missing Entire length: not taken

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body: Head at west, feet at east.
Position of hands: Indeterminate Head position: Raised on soil pillow.

Grave Goods: 2 large potsherds found underneath body at lower level. May not be in association with the remains.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 1 (30% or less)
Most bones disarticulated, one femur (left?) and tibia were found. Several milk teeth in various locations. Finger phalanges found in thoracic area. Some vertebrae found during final clearing.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: indeterminate Milk teeth: Yes
Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Age Estimation: Infant (0-3 yrs) or Child (3-12 yrs) (?)

Sex determination observations: N/A

Possible Sex: N/A

Additional comments/observations:

Excavation year: 2021

1. (Unit-14)

Measurements:
Femur 39.5 cm
Humerus 29.5 cm
Radius 21 cm
Ulna     23 cm
Tibia    32.7 cm
Fibula    28 cm Cranium fragmented Pelvis (width) 19 cm Entire length: 153 cm

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body: Head at west, feet at east. Position of hands: Crossed at lower abdomen with left arm on top of right arm.
Head position: Raised with soil pillow.

Grave Goods: Glass paste bead with red glaze flecks found around cervical vertebrae.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater)
Cervical vertebrae missing, all feet bones missing along with left tibia.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: Yes
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: Indeterminate

Age Estimation: Old Adult (50+ yrs) (See Dental Forensic Data section, p. 90)

Sex determination observations: Skull too fractured to make determination in the field.

Possible Sex: Male

Additional comments/observations: Adult male based on the features of the pelvis with an angular sacrum and blunt ischiopubic ramus. Damage to skull prohibited a complete sex dimorphic analysis of skull. Based on the wear of the teeth this male was probably middle-aged at time of interment. The soil fill in and around the locus contained disarticulated juvenile remains which indicates the possibility that a child’s grave was interred close to this adult. Dental analysis conducted, see 2021 report.

Excavation year: 2021

1. (Unit-15)

Measurements:
Femur 14 cm
Humerus 11 cm
Radius 9.5 cm
Ulna     8 cm
Tibia    11 cm
Fibula 11 cm Cranium fractured Pelvis (width) 5.2 cm Entire length: 72 cm

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body:
Head at west, feet at east.
Position of hands: Prone along sides Head position: Raised, facing
south.

Grave Goods: 3 stones, including 1
rectangular shaped piece of red granite, 1 under left humerus, and one flattened on both sides under right Illum.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater)
Bones of the hands, feet, and right radius and ulna missing.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: No
Milk teeth: Yes
Signs of osteoarthritis: No

Age Estimation: Infant (0-3 yrs) (See Dental Forensic Data section, p. 92)

Sex determination observations: N/A

Possible Sex: N/A

Additional comments/observations: The skull was separated by the fissures though predominately intact with most of the remains in a good overall state of preservation, though some bones, especially the ribs were somewhat disturbed. The head was slightly raised, but in this case gazing south/southeast which may indicate intentional placement in that direction. The legs appear to have been drawn together at the feet. The left arm was placed along the side of the body with the left hand along the ilium of the pelvis. The grave was covered with gray-colored mudbricks as indicative of the brick found on the thoracic region (which had a pink tint, possibly due to calcination or burning). Other bricks were especially visible in the lower appendicular region of the skeleton with gray soil fill on the outer sides of the legs as well as between the femurs and tibias. Preliminary field analysis of the teeth suggests a child between 2-4 years at time of death. Dental analysis conducted.

Excavation year: 2021

1. (Unit-15/7D)

Measurements:
Femur     44 cm
Humerus 32 cm
Radius     24 cm
Ulna          25.6 cm
Tibia         35 cm
Fibula       34 cm
Cranium 51.8 cm (cir); 16 cm (dia) Pelvis (width) 20.5 cm
Entire length 142 cm
Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine. Directional orientation of the body:
Head at west, feet at east. Position of hands: Left arm at 90-
degree angle and resting above the left Illum; right arm below the left at approximately a 130-degree angle resting across the right Illum.
Head position: Raised, facing southeast and a slightly downward.

Grave Goods: None present.

Overall State of Preservation: Grade 3 (60% or greater) No bones missing.

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: Yes
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: No
Age Estimation: Young Adult (20-35 yrs) (See Dental Forensic Data section, pp. 86-87).
Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: round Orbital rim: sharp
Sub-orbital ridges: unpronounced
Forehead:   upright
Mandible breadth:
Nuchal crest: smooth
Mastoid process:   small
Mental eminence: pronounced
Possible Sex: Female

Additional comments/observations: Just to the west and immediately behind the skull, a large animal bone (probably cow) was found. It was at the same level as the skull. This could have been a fragment included with brick as temper, but its large size suggests this not to be the case. Examination of the skull and pelvis revealed that the sex of the remains was female based on the sharp medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus and the cranial features such as a sloped forehead, rounded orbits, the smooth nuchal crest, and small mastoid process. All epiphyses were fused confirming an age of more than 28 years. Dental analysis done suggesting the interred was 34 years old at time of death.


Excavation year: 2021

1. (Unit-15)

Measurements:
None taken, only skull revealed

Body Description:
Body position: Extended, supine.
Directional orientation of the body: Head at west
Position of hands: Unknown Head position: not raised, gaze to the north.

Grave Goods: Possible boqta headdress found to south of temporal, including 18-20 glass paste beads, a cylindrical bronze/copper phylactery. Possible beech bark (which the boqta is usually constructed from) was also revealed. Wood fragment also revealed with a small amount of red pigment. Item was not excavated.

Overall State of Preservation: Unknown, however, skull was well preserved

Age determination estimation features: Epiphyses fused: N/A
Milk teeth: No
Signs of osteoarthritis: N/A

Age Estimation: Young Adult (20-35 yrs) Based on teeth analysis. (See Dental Forensic Data section, pp. 88-89).

Sex determination observations: Orbital shape: round Orbital rim:  sharp
Sub-orbital ridges: unpronounced
Forehead:   sloped Mandible breadth: narrow Nuchal crest: unknown Mastoid process:   unknown Mental eminence: unknown